Rheumatic manifestations among cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors

A Case of Severe Seronegative Inflammatory Arthritis due to Nivolumab and Review of the Literature

Immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the treatment of cancer, yet therapy is often hampered by immune-related adverse events (irAEs) which range from mild to severe life-threatening events. Musculoskeletal (MSK) irAEs leading to discontinuation of ICIs are uncommon but increasingly recognized. We report a challenging case of severe immune-related seronegative inflammatory arthritis due to nivolumab in a patient with stage IV metastatic adenocarcinoma.

Management of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related rheumatic adverse events

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which target the programmed cell death receptor‐1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte‐associated antigen‐4 signaling pathways, represent remarkable breakthroughs in cancer treatment and have improved survival among patients with a variety of malignancies. However, the wide use of ICIs is associated with a spectrum of immune‐related adverse events (irAEs) that can affect any organ system, and may sometimes be life threatening. Rheumatic irAEs are not an infrequent type of irAE. In this systematic review, we consider the clinical characteristics of rheumatic irAEs, including patients with pre‐existing rheumatic diseases, and focus on the management of rheumatic irAEs.

[Immune-related adverse events after immune checkpoints inhibitors in 2019: An update]

Use of checkpoint inhibitors to treat cancer was one of the most important revolution these last years and an increasing number of new types of tumors is currently under investigation with these new treatments. However, immune-related adverse events associated with these agents frequently affect various organs, mimicking auto-immune or inflammatory diseases. Some of these effects can be severe, often requiring hospitalization and specialized treatment (immunosuppression). Most known agents are ipilimumab (anti-CTLA-4 antibody) nivolumab and pembrolizumab (anti-PD-1 antibodies). New molecules are now approved or in development as anti-PD-L1 antibodies, anti-LAG-3 or anti-TIM-3 antibodies, increasing the probability and new description of immune-related adverse events. With his experience in auto-immune diseases, the immunologist/internal medicine specialist has an important role in the management of these toxicities. The goal of this review is to focus on the incidence, diagnostic assessment and recommended management of the most relevant immune-related adverse events.

Rheumatic complications in cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized anticancer therapy due to their long-term clinical benefits and immune boosting mechanisms. However, despite their consistent therapeutic effects, the use of ICIs is associated with a spectrum of adverse events due to their autoimmune and auto-inflammatory actions. These adverse events can affect any organ system, including the endocrine, neurologic, gastrointestinal, cardiac, skin, pulmonary, and musculoskeletal systems. Of the immune-related adverse events (irAEs), rheumatic complications are common and appear to be distinct from irAEs in other organs in terms of variability of onset time, capacity for persistence, and relationship with pre-existing autoimmune rheumatologic diseases. In this article, we review the mechanisms of the anti-cancer effects of ICIs, the irAEs of immuno-oncology drugs, and the general recommendations for managing irAEs. In particular, we focus on rheumatologic irAEs and discuss their prevalence, clinical characteristics, and management.

[Management of Rheumatic Adverse Events Related to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors]

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have made remarkable breakthroughs in cancer treatment. However, the widely use of ICIs is associated with a spectrum of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). These adverse events can affect any organ system. In this article, we have made a systemic review about the clinical characteristics of rheumatic irAEs, and also summarized irAEs in patients with pre-exsiting rheumatic disease. We also focus on the management of rheumatic irAEs.

Eosinophilic Fasciitis Following Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy: Four Cases and a Review of Literature

BACKGROUND

Checkpoint inhibitor therapy is widely known to cause a number of immune-related adverse events. One rare adverse effect that is emerging is eosinophilic fasciitis, a fibrosing disorder causing inflammatory infiltration of subcutaneous fascia. It is characterized clinically by edema and subsequent induration and tightening of the skin and subcutaneous tissues. The condition is rare, yet at our institutions we have seen four cases in the past 3 years. We describe our 4 cases and review 11 other cases reported in the literature.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present four cases of eosinophilic fasciitis following treatment with programmed cell death protein 1 or programmed cell death-ligand 1 blockade. All patients had extremity involvement with characteristic skin changes ranging from peripheral edema to induration, tightening, and joint limitation. The patients had varying degrees of peripheral eosinophilia. In two of our patients, the diagnosis was made by full-thickness skin biopsy showing lymphocytic infiltration of the subcutaneous fascia, with CD4+ T cells predominating in one case and CD8+ T cells in the other. In the other two cases, the diagnosis was made on the basis of characteristic imaging findings in the context of clinical features consistent with the diagnosis. All four patients were treated with glucocorticoids with varying degrees of success; immunotherapy had to be discontinued in all four. Patients with advanced melanoma who experienced this adverse effect had either a partial response or a complete response to therapy.

CONCLUSION

Eosinophilic fasciitis can occur as a result of checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Although a tissue diagnosis is the gold standard, imaging studies may facilitate the diagnosis in the presence of consistent clinical features, but a degree of suspicion is key to recognizing the condition early. Therapy requires a collaborative approach by oncology, rheumatology, and dermatology; physical therapy is an important adjunct in treatment. For advanced melanoma, it may be a good prognostic indicator.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

It is important for clinicians to recognize that eosinophilic fasciitis is a potential immune-related adverse event (irAE) as a consequence of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. The presentation is quite stereotypical; the diagnosis can be made by imaging in the absence of a full-thickness skin biopsy. Early intervention is important to limit morbidity. This irAE may be a good prognostic sign among patients with melanoma.

The Role of Immune Checkpoint Receptors in Regulating Immune Reactivity in Lupus

Immune checkpoint receptors with co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory signals are important modulators for the immune system. However, unrestricted co-stimulation and/or inadequate co-inhibition may cause breakdown of self-tolerance, leading to autoimmunity. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex multi-organ disease with skewed and dysregulated immune responses interacting with genetics and the environment. The close connections between co-signaling pathways and SLE have gradually been established in past research. Also, the recent success of immune checkpoint blockade in cancer therapy illustrates the importance of the co-inhibitory receptors in cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, immune checkpoint blockade could result in substantial immune-related adverse events that mimic autoimmune diseases, including lupus. Together, immune checkpoint regulators represent viable immunotherapeutic targets for the treatment of both autoimmunity and cancer. Therefore, it appears reasonable to treat SLE by restoring the out-of-order co-signaling axis or by manipulating collateral pathways to control the pathogenic immune responses. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding the relationships between SLE and the co-signaling pathways of T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, and highlight their potential clinical implications. Current clinical trials targeting the specific co-signaling axes involved in SLE help to advance such knowledge, but further in-depth exploration is still warranted.

Immune-related Adverse Events Associated with Cancer Immunotherapy: A Review for the Practicing Rheumatologist

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have revolutionized cancer therapy by blocking inhibitory pathways of the immune system to fight cancer cells. Their use is often limited by the development of autoimmune toxicities, which can affect multiple organ systems and are referred to as immune-related adverse events (irAE). Among these are rheumatologic irAE, including inflammatory arthritis, myositis, vasculitis, and others. Rheumatologic irAE seem to be different from irAE in other organs and from traditional autoimmune diseases in that they can occur early or have delayed onset, and can persist chronically, even after cancer therapy is terminated. Because immune checkpoint inhibitors are increasingly used for many types of cancer, it is important for oncologists and rheumatologists to recognize and manage toxicities early. In this review, we discuss currently approved immune checkpoint inhibitors and their mechanisms of action and systemic toxicities, with a focus on the management and effect on further cancer therapy of rheumatic irAE.

Sonographic Findings in Inflammatory Arthritis Secondary to Immune Checkpoint Inhibition: A Case Series

OBJECTIVE

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are transforming the field of oncology, leading to tumor regression in multiple advanced cancers. With this case series, we review the ultrasound imaging findings in a series of patients with ICI-induced inflammatory arthritis (IA), a novel rheumatic disease that is caused by cancer immunotherapy.

METHODS

We identified patients with rheumatologist-diagnosed, ICI-induced IA who had musculoskeletal ultrasound performed for clinical care. A retrospective chart review was done to obtain demographics, oncologic history, clinical presentation, imaging, and synovial fluid results. Ultrasound images were reviewed and scored for synovial and tendon pathology, presence of Doppler, and bony erosion.

RESULTS

Nine patients were included in this study with a total of 18 joint regions assessed. The knees were the most commonly imaged joint followed by the hands, wrists, feet, and ankles. Synovitis was seen in 12 of the 18 joints with active Doppler in 50% of the cases. Tendon involvement was also frequently seen (13 of 18 joints) with tenosynovitis, tendinitis, and enthesophytes. Erosions were less frequent and seen in only three cases but were also an early finding.

CONCLUSION

Patients with ICI-induced IA had a wide range of pathology affecting the synovium, tendons, and bones on musculoskeletal ultrasound. Further systematic study with imaging is needed for this group of diseases.

Immune-Related Adverse Events: A Case-Based Approach

Immunotherapy has heralded the advent of a new era in oncology. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) enhance anti-tumor immunity, thereby reinvigorating a patient's immune system to fight cancer. While therapy with this class of agents has resulted in improved clinical outcomes for patients with multiple tumor types, a broad spectrum of immune-related adverse events (irAEs) may affect any organ system, with variable clinical presentations. Prompt recognition and management of irAEs are associated with improved irAE outcomes, and represents an important new clinical challenge for practicing oncologists. Herein, we provide a comprehensive case-based review of the most common and clinically-important irAEs, focussing on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management. We also examine future strategies that may provide meaningful insights into the prevention and management of irAEs.

Meningeal enhancement depicted by magnetic resonance imaging in tumor patients: neoplastic meningitis or therapy-related enhancement?

PURPOSE

To assess the prevalence of false-positive meningeal contrast enhancement in patients with solid tumors who were undergoing chemotherapy.

METHODS

A total of 2572 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations of the brain were retrospectively evaluated by two readers for the presence of pathological meningeal contrast enhancement conspicuous for neoplastic meningitis. These patients either had malignant melanoma, breast or lung cancer, or lymphoma. The reference standards were cerebrospinal fluid cytology results and follow-up MRI. In cases with pathological contrast enhancement that decreased upon follow-up and non-malignant cytology, the enhancement pattern was further described as pial or dural, local or diffuse, or supra- or infra-tentorial. Moreover, the underlying therapy regimes were assessed.

RESULTS

The final study cohort included 78 patients (51 females, median age 57 years), of which 11 patients (14.1%) had a repeated non-malignant cytology ('pseudomeningeosis'). In one case, this finding, a granular pleocytosis, was attributed to previous radiotherapy. Of the remaining patients, seven were receiving multimodal, immunotherapy-based therapy regimens. Patients with unsuspicious cytology had a predominantly supratentorial distribution pattern in comparison to patients with neoplastic meningitis.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall prevalence of the presence of false-positive meningeal contrast enhancement is low (< 1%) and not associated with specific imaging patterns. We hypothesize that there is a possible relationship between immunotherapy and 'pseudomeningeosis'. Therefore, in all cases with suspected neoplastic meningitis, the cerebrospinal fluid should be analyzed to confirm the diagnosis, especially in patients undergoing immunotherapy.

Management of Immunotherapy-Related Toxicities, Version 1.2019, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology

The aim of the NCCN Guidelines for Management of Immunotherapy-Related Toxicities is to provide guidance on the management of immune-related adverse events resulting from cancer immunotherapy. The NCCN Management of Immunotherapy-Related Toxicities Panel is an interdisciplinary group of representatives from NCCN Member Institutions and ASCO, consisting of medical and hematologic oncologists with expertise in a wide array of disease sites, and experts from the fields of dermatology, gastroenterology, neuro-oncology, nephrology, emergency medicine, cardiology, oncology nursing, and patient advocacy. Several panel representatives are members of the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC). The initial version of the NCCN Guidelines was designed in general alignment with recommendations published by ASCO and SITC. The content featured in this issue is an excerpt of the recommendations for managing toxicity related to immune checkpoint blockade and a review of existing evidence. For the full version of the NCCN Guidelines, including recommendations for managing toxicities related to chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, visitNCCN.org.

Checkpoint Inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Treatment with checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-programmed death-1 (anti-PD-1), anti-PD-ligand 1 (anti-PD-L1), and anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (anti-CTLA-4) antibodies can prolong the survival of cancer patients, but it also induces autoimmune side effects in 86-96% of patients by activating the immune system. In 17-59% of patients, these are severe or even life-threatening.

METHODS

This review is based on pertinent articles retrieved by a search in PubMed and on an evaluation of a side-effect registry.

RESULTS

Checkpoint-inhibitor-induced autoimmune side effects manifest themselves in all organ systems, most commonly as skin lesions (46-62%), autoimmune colitis (22-48%), autoimmune hepatitis (7-33%), and endocrinopathies (thyroiditis, hypophysitis, adrenalitis, diabetes mellitus; 12-34%). Rarer side effects include pneumonitis (3-8%), nephritis (1-7%), cardiac side effects including cardiomyositis (5%), and neurological side effects (1-5%). Severe (sometimes lethal) side effects arise in 17-21%, 20-28%, and 59% of patients undergoing anti-PD-1 and anti- CTLA-4 antibody treatment and the approved combination therapy, respectively. With proper monitoring, however, these side effects can be recognized early and, usually, treated with success. Endocrine side effects generally require long-term hormone substitution. Patients who have stopped taking checkpoint inhibitors because of side effects do not show a poorer response of their melanoma or shorter survival in comparison to patients who continue to take checkpoint inhibitors.

CONCLUSION

The complex management of checkpoint-inhibitor-induced side effects should be coordinated in experienced centers. The creation of an interdisciplinary "tox team" with designated experts for organ-specific side effects has proven useful. Prospective registry studies based on structured documentation of side effects in routine clinical practice are currently lacking and urgently needed.

Safety and Tolerability of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (PD-1 and PD-L1) in Cancer

Immunotherapy has emerged in recent years and has revolutionized the treatment of cancer. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, including anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4), anti-programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and anti-programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) agents, are the first of this new generation of treatments. Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 agents target immune cells by blocking the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway. This blockade leads to enhancement of the immune system and therefore restores the tumour-induced immune deficiency selectively in the tumour microenvironment. However, this shift in the balance of the immune system can also produce adverse effects that involve multiple organs. The pattern of toxicity is different from traditional chemotherapy agents or targeted therapy, and there is still little experience in recognizing and managing it. Thus, toxicity constitutes a real clinical management challenge and any new alteration should be suspected of being treatment-related. The most common toxicities occur in the skin, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, and endocrine, musculoskeletal, renal, nervous, haematologic, cardiovascular and ocular systems. Immune-mediated toxic effects are usually manageable, but toxicities may sometimes lead to treatment withdrawal, and even fulminant and fatal events can occur. Oncologists need to collaborate with internists, clinical immunologists and other specialists to understand, manage and prevent toxicity derived from immunotherapy. This review focuses on the mechanisms of toxicity of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 agents, and its diagnosis and management.

Musculoskeletal and Rheumatic Diseases Induced by Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: A Review of the Literature

Background:

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are a new promising class of antitumor drugs that have been associated with a number of immune-related Adverse Events (AEs), including musculoskeletal and rheumatic disease.

Methods:

We searched Medline reviewing reports of musculoskeletal and rheumatic AEs induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Results:

Several musculoskeletal and rheumatic AEs associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors treatment are reported in the literature. In particular, arthralgia and myalgia were the most common reported AEs, whereas the prevalence of arthritis, myositis and vasculitis is less characterized and mainly reported in case series and case reports. Other occasionally described AEs are sicca syndrome, polymyalgia rheumatica, systemic lupus erythematosus and sarcoidosis.

Conclusion:

Newly induced musculoskeletal and rheumatic diseases are a frequent adverse event associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors treatment

Autoantibody Development under Treatment with Immune-Checkpoint Inhibitors

Immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) activate the immune system to assault cancer cells in a manner that is not antigen specific. We hypothesized that tolerance may also be broken to autoantigens, resulting in autoantibody formation, which could be associated with immune-related adverse events (irAEs) and antitumor efficacy. Twenty-three common clinical autoantibodies in pre- and posttreatment sera from 133 ipilimumab-treated melanoma patients were determined, and their development linked to the occurrence of irAEs, best overall response, and survival. Autoantibodies developed in 19.2% (19/99) of patients who were autoantibody-negative pretreatment. A nonsignificant association was observed between development of any autoantibodies and any irAEs [OR, 2.92; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.85-10.01]. Patients with antithyroid antibodies after ipilimumab had significantly more thyroid dysfunction under subsequent anti-PD-1 therapy: 7/11 (54.6%) patients with antithyroid antibodies after ipilimumab developed thyroid dysfunction under anti-PD1 versus 7/49 (14.3%) patients without antibodies (OR, 9.96; 95% CI, 1.94-51.1). Patients who developed autoantibodies showed a trend for better survival (HR for all-cause death: 0.66; 95% CI, 0.34-1.26) and therapy response (OR, 2.64; 95% CI, 0.85-8.16). We conclude that autoantibodies develop under ipilimumab treatment and could be a potential marker of ICI toxicity and efficacy.

Clinical Safety of Combined Targeted and Viscum album L. Therapy in Oncological Patients

Background: Despite improvement of tumor response rates, targeted therapy may induce toxicities in cancer patients. Recent studies indicate amelioration of adverse events (AEs) by add-on mistletoe (Viscum album L., VA) in standard oncological treatment. The primary objective of this multicenter observational study was to determine the safety profile of targeted and add-on VA therapy compared to targeted therapy alone. Methods: Demographic and medical data were retrieved from the Network Oncology registry. Allocation to either control (targeted therapy) or combinational group (targeted/add-on VA) was performed. Safety-associated variables were evaluated by adjusted multivariable analyses. Results: The median age of the study population (n = 310) at first diagnosis was 59 years; 67.4% were female. In total, 126 patients (40.6%) were in the control and 184 patients (59.4%) in the combination group. Significant differences were observed between both groups with respect to overall AE frequency (χ² = 4.1, p = 0.04) and to discontinuation of standard oncological treatment (χ² = 4.8, p = 0.03) with lower rates in the combinational group (20.1%, 35% respectively) compared to control (30.2%, 60.5%, respectively). Addition of VA to targeted therapy significantly reduced the probability of oncological treatment discontinuation by 70% (Odds ratio (OR) 0.30, p = 0.02). Conclusions: Our results indicate a highly significant reduction of AE-induced treatment discontinuation in all-stage cancer patients when treated with VA in addition to targeted therapy.

Possible immune adverse events as predictors of durable response to BRAF inhibitors in patients with BRAF V600-mutant metastatic melanoma

BRAF inhibitors (BRAFi) and MEK inhibitors (MEKi) are among the cornerstones of metastatic melanoma therapy demonstrating excellent response rates with duration of 7-12 m. Long-term benefit from these agents was reported in patients with normal lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and less than three disease sites. However, a treatment-dependent marker for long-term efficacy is lacking. Data suggest that immune-related adverse events (irAEs) are associated with clinical benefit in patients treated with immunotherapy and that response to BRAF/MEK therapy may have an underlying immune mechanism. We hypothesised that AEs with an underlying immune mechanism may be associated with a durable response to targeted therapy. We retrospectively identified a cohort of 78 BRAF V600-mutant metastatic melanoma patients treated with BRAFi or BRAFi + MEKi between November 2010 and November 2013. Four treatment-related AEs including vitiligo, uveitis, erythema nodosum and keratitis sicca were defined as irAEs of interest. Retrospective analysis of AEs in relationship to progression-free survival (PFS), disease burden and LDH levels was performed. Median PFS (mPFS) for all patients was 7.5 months with responses ongoing in eight patients as of April 2017. Ten patients were identified with the AEs defined previously. Cox regression analysis revealed a very strong association between those AEs and PFS; mPFS was 42.8 m in patients with at least one AE versus 6.1 m in those without an AE (hazard ratio [HR] 0.22, p = 0.002). This association was independent of LDH levels and disease burden (HR 0.24, p = 0.035). This analysis demonstrates a strong association between immune AEs and durable response to targeted therapy and may provide a treatment-related biomarker to estimate the outcome of therapy.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors and the development of granulomatous reactions

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICPIs) have emerged as a frontline treatment for a growing list of malignancies. Disruption of the negative regulatory immune checkpoints by ICPIs has been associated with many immune-related adverse events. Granulomatous reactions, such as sarcoidosis-like reactions, granulomatous panniculitis, granuloma annulare, and granulomatous dermatitis, are uncommon but increasingly recognized immune-related adverse events seen in patients treated with ICPIs. The frequency and significance of these eruptions, including whether they portend responsiveness to treatment, remain unclear. Additionally, understanding the role of immune checkpoint blockade in these reactions may provide mechanistic insight into the relevant signaling pathways involved in sarcoidosis and other granulomatous disorders.

Clinical presentation of immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced inflammatory arthritis differs by immunotherapy regimen

INTRODUCTION

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are a class of cancer immunotherapy, increasingly utilized to treat malignancies. Inflammatory arthritis (IA) is a potential consequence of ICI use, but there is limited information to guide evaluation and management of this immune-related adverse event (irAE). This study aimed to characterize clinical phenotypes, IA treatment and response in the largest cohort of patients with ICI-induced IA reported to date.

METHODS

Patients with rheumatologist-confirmed IA occurring during or after ICI treatment with no prior history of autoimmune disease were included. Data were analyzed by ICI treatment regimen; treatments included combination CTLA-4/PD-1 inhibition, anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 monotherapy. Relationship to the development of other irAEs, management of IA, and outcomes of IA management were evaluated.

RESULTS

Of 30 patients identified, those treated with combination ICI therapy were more likely to present with knee arthritis, to have higher levels of C-reactive protein, to have already had another irAE, and to have a reactive arthritis-like phenotype. In contrast, patients treated with ICI monotherapy were more likely to have initial small joint involvement and to have IA as their only irAE. Ten patients required additional immunosuppression beyond corticosteroids, with TNF-inhibitors and/or methotrexate. Tumor progression while on non-corticosteroid immunosuppression was not seen in those with initial tumor response to ICIs.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that distinct IA phenotypes may emerge with exposure to different ICI regimens. The majority of patients referred to rheumatology required systemic immunosuppression to manage their IA symptoms. Tumor progression was not seen in patients requiring TNF-inhibitors.

Psoriatic arthritis due to nivolumab administration a case report and review of the literature

Nowadays we have novel equipment for lung cancer diagnosis, however; due to lack of symptoms, lung cancer is still diagnosed at a late stage. Currently we have the following therapies for non-small cell lung cancer: a) non-specific cytotoxic agents, b) targeted therapies and c) immunotherapy. Each therapy has its own advantages and adverse effects. In the current case we will present a rare case of psoriacic arthritis that was presented after two cycles of nivolumab administration and we will also present a review of the literature.