Long-term potentiation selectively expressed by NMDA receptors at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses

Spike-timing-dependent plasticity in hippocampal CA3 neurons

Synaptic plasticity of different inputs converging onto CA3 pyramidal neurons is central to theories of hippocampal function. The mossy fibre (MF) input to these neurons is thought to exhibit plasticity that is in nearly all aspects fundamentally different from plasticity in other brain regions: in particular, when induced by high frequency presynaptic stimulation, plasticity at these synapses is independent of NMDA receptor (NMDAR) activation and presynaptically expressed. Here, we show that different stimulation protocols that depend on the close timing of MF activity and postsynaptic spikes induce bidirectional plasticity in CA3 neurons in 3-week-old rats. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is observed when an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), evoked by MF stimulation, precedes a single postsynaptic action potential (AP) or a brief AP burst by 10 ms. Instead, timing-dependent long-term depression (LTD) requires the pairing of a single AP to an EPSP with a delay of 30 ms. The pairing of APs to synaptic activity is required for plasticity induction, since the application of unpaired APs or EPSPs did not alter synaptic strength. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that both timing-dependent LTP and LTD critically depend on the activation of NMDARs. Specifically blocking postsynaptic NMDARs prevents plasticity, demonstrating that NMDARs important to spike-timing-dependent plasticity in CA3 neurons are required at postsynaptic sites. In summary, this study shows that the close timing of APs to MF excitatory synaptic input can alter synaptic efficacy in CA3 neurons in a bidirectional manner.

Distinct trafficking and expression mechanisms underlie LTP and LTD of NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic responses

Although an increasing number of studies have demonstrated the plasticity of NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that underlie this neurologically important process. In a study of NMDAR-mediated synaptic responses in hippocampal Schaffer-CA1 synapses whose AMPA receptor (AMPAR) activity is totally blocked, we uncovered differences between the trafficking mechanisms that underlie the long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) that can be induced in these cells under these conditions. The LTP-producing protocol failed to induce a change in the amplitude of NMDAR-mediated postsynaptic currents (NMDAR EPSCs) in the first 5-10 min, but induced gradual enhancement of NMDAR EPSCs thereafter that soon reached a stable magnitude. This "slow" LTP of NMDAR EPSCs (LTP(NMDA)) was blocked by inhibiting exocytosis or actin polymerization in postsynaptic cells. By contrast, LTD of NMDAR EPSCs (LTD(NMDA)) was immediately inducible, and, although it was blocked by the actin stabilizer, it was unaffected by exocytosis or endocytosis inhibitors. Furthermore, concomitant changes in the decay time of NMDAR EPSCs suggested that differential switches in NR2 subunit composition accompanied LTP(NMDA) and LTD(NMDA), and these changes were blocked by the calcium buffer BAPTA or an mGluR antagonist. Our results suggest that LTP(NMDA) and LTD(NMDA) utilize different NMDAR trafficking pathways and express different ratios of NMDAR subunits on the postsynaptic surface.

Activity-dependent release of endogenous BDNF from mossy fibers evokes a TRPC3 current and Ca2+ elevations in CA3 pyramidal neurons

Multiple studies have demonstrated that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a potent modulator of neuronal structure and function in the hippocampus. However, the majority of studies to date have relied on the application of recombinant BDNF. We herein report that endogenous BDNF, released via theta burst stimulation of mossy fibers (MF), elicits a slowly developing cationic current and intracellular Ca(2+) elevations in CA3 pyramidal neurons with the same pharmacological profile of the transient receptor potential canonical 3 (TRPC3)-mediated I(BDNF) activated in CA1 neurons by brief localized applications of recombinant BDNF. Indeed, sensitivity to both the extracellular BDNF scavenger tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB)-IgG and small hairpin interference RNA-mediated TRPC3 channel knockdown confirms the identity of this conductance as such, henceforth-denoted MF-I(BDNF). Consistent with such activity-dependent release of BDNF, these MF-I(BDNF) responses were insensitive to manipulations of extracellular Zn(2+) concentration. Brief theta burst stimulation of MFs induced a long-lasting depression in the amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) mediated by both AMPA and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors without changes in the NMDA receptor/AMPA receptor ratio, suggesting a reduction in neurotransmitter release. This depression of NMDAR-mediated EPSCs required activity-dependent release of endogenous BDNF from MFs and activation of Trk receptors, as it was sensitive to the extracellular BDNF scavenger TrkB-IgG and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor k-252b. These results uncovered the most immediate response to endogenously released--native--BDNF in hippocampal neurons and lend further credence to the relevance of BDNF signaling for synaptic function in the hippocampus.

Metabotropic glutamate mGlu1 receptor stimulation and blockade: therapeutic opportunities in psychiatric illness

Metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptors play a modulatory role in the nervous system. They enhance cell excitability, modulate synaptic neurotransmission and are involved in synaptic plasticity. During the last 10 years, several selective metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptor competitive antagonists and potentiators have been discovered. These pharmacological tools, together with early and later work in metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptor mutant mice have allowed studying the role of the receptor in various aspects of psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety, depression and schizophrenia. We here review the data on selective metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptor antagonists in support of their potential as anxiolytic and antidepressant treatments. We propose a rationale for the development of metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptor positive allosteric modulators for the treatment of schizophrenia. Potential side effects of blockade and activation of metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptors are addressed, with special focus on the differential effects of metabotropic glutamate mGlu(1) receptor antagonists in cognition models with positive reinforcement versus those that use aversive learning procedures. Further development of negative allosteric modulators and more drug-like positive allosteric modulators will be required in order to decipher the therapeutic efficacy and safety margin of these compounds in the clinic.

Natural spike trains trigger short- and long-lasting dynamics at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses in rodents

Background

Synapses exhibit strikingly different forms of plasticity over a wide range of time scales, from milliseconds to hours. Studies on synaptic plasticity typically use constant-frequency stimulation to activate synapses, whereas in vivo activity of neurons is irregular.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using extracellular and whole-cell electrophysiological recordings, we have here studied the synaptic responses at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses in vitro to stimulus patterns obtained from in vivo recordings of place cell firing of dentate gyrus granule cells in behaving rodents. We find that synaptic strength is strongly modulated on short- and long-lasting time scales during the presentation of the natural stimulus trains.

Conclusions/Significance

We conclude that dynamic short- and long-term synaptic plasticity at the hippocampal mossy fiber synapse plays a prominent role in normal synaptic function.

The mossy fiber bouton: the "common" or the "unique" synapse?

Synapses are the key elements for signal processing and plasticity in the brain. They are composed of nearly the same structural subelements, an apposition zone including a pre- and postsynaptic density, a cleft and a pool of vesicles. It is, however, their actual composition that determines their different behavior in synaptic transmission and plasticity. Here, we describe and discuss the structural factors underlying the unique functional properties of the hippocampal mossy fiber (MF) synapse. Two membrane specializations, active zones (AZs; transmitter release sites), and puncta adherentia (PA), putative adhesion complexes were found. On average, individual boutons had ∼20 AZs with a mean surface area of 0.1 μm² and a short distance of 0.45 μm between individual AZs. Mossy fiber boutons (MFBs) and their target structures were isolated from each other by astrocytes, but fine glial processes never reached the AZs. Therefore, two structural factors are likely to promote synaptic cross-talk: the short distance and the absence of fine glial processes between individual AZs. Thus, synaptic crosstalk may contribute to the high efficacy of hippocampal MF synapses. On average, an adult bouton contained ∼16,000 synaptic vesicles; ∼600 vesicles were located within 60 nm from the AZ, ∼4000 between 60 nm and 200 nm, and the remaining beyond 200 nm, suggesting large readily releasable, recycling, and reserve pools. Thus, the size of the three pools together with the number and distribution of AZs underlie the unique extent of synaptic efficacy and plasticity of the hippocampal MF synapse.

Critical involvement of postsynaptic protein kinase activation in long-term potentiation at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses on CA3 interneurons

Hippocampal mossy fiber (MF) synapses on area CA3 lacunosum-moleculare (L-M) interneurons are capable of undergoing a Hebbian form of NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-independent long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by the same type of high-frequency stimulation (HFS) that induces LTP at MF synapses on pyramidal cells. LTP of MF input to L-M interneurons occurs only at synapses containing mostly calcium-impermeable (CI)-AMPA receptors (AMPARs). Here, we demonstrate that HFS-induced LTP at these MF-interneuron synapses requires postsynaptic activation of protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC). Brief extracellular stimulation of PKA with forskolin (FSK) alone or in combination with 1-Methyl-3-isobutylxanthine (IBMX) induced a long-lasting synaptic enhancement at MF synapses predominantly containing CI-AMPARs. However, the FSK/IBMX-induced potentiation in cells loaded with the specific PKA inhibitor peptide PKI(6-22) failed to be maintained. Consistent with these data, delivery of HFS to MFs synapsing onto L-M interneurons loaded with PKI(6-22) induced posttetanic potentiation (PTP) but not LTP. Hippocampal sections stained for the catalytic subunit of PKA revealed abundant immunoreactivity in interneurons located in strata radiatum and L-M of area CA3. We also found that extracellular activation of PKC with phorbol 12,13-diacetate induced a pharmacological potentiation of the isolated CI-AMPAR component of the MF EPSP. However, HFS delivered to MF synapses on cells loaded with the PKC inhibitor chelerythrine exhibited PTP followed by a significant depression. Together, our data indicate that MF LTP in L-M interneurons at synapses containing primarily CI-AMPARs requires some of the same signaling cascades as does LTP of glutamatergic input to CA3 or CA1 pyramidal cells.

SNAP-25 is a target of protein kinase C phosphorylation critical to NMDA receptor trafficking

Protein kinase C (PKC) enhances NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated currents and promotes NMDAR delivery to the cell surface via SNARE-dependent exocytosis. Although the mechanisms of PKC potentiation are established, the molecular target of PKC is unclear. Here we show that synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25), a SNARE protein, is functionally relevant to PKC-dependent NMDAR insertion, and identify serine residue-187 as the molecular target of PKC phosphorylation. Constitutively active PKC delivered via the patch pipette potentiated NMDA (but not AMPA) whole-cell currents in hippocampal neurons. Expression of RNAi targeting SNAP-25 or mutant SNAP-25(S187A) and/or acute disruption of the SNARE complex by treatment with BoNT A, BoNT B or SNAP-25 C-terminal blocking peptide abolished NMDAR potentiation. A SNAP-25 peptide and function-blocking antibody suppressed PKC potentiation of NMDA EPSCs at mossy fiber-CA3 synapses. These findings identify SNAP-25 as the target of PKC phosphorylation critical to PKC-dependent incorporation of synaptic NMDARs and document a postsynaptic action of this major SNARE protein relevant to synaptic plasticity.

Postsynaptic clustering and activation of Pyk2 by PSD-95

The tyrosine kinase Pyk2 plays a unique role in intracellular signal transduction by linking Ca(2+) influx to tyrosine phosphorylation, but the molecular mechanism of Pyk2 activation is unknown. We report that Pyk2 oligomerization by antibodies in vitro or overexpression of PSD-95 in PC6-3 cells induces trans-autophosphorylation of Tyr402, the first step in Pyk2 activation. In neurons, Ca(2+) influx through NMDA-type glutamate receptors causes postsynaptic clustering and autophosphorylation of endogenous Pyk2 via Ca(2+)- and calmodulin-stimulated binding to PSD-95. Accordingly, Ca(2+) influx promotes oligomerization and thereby autoactivation of Pyk2 by stimulating its interaction with PSD-95. We show that this mechanism of Pyk2 activation is critical for long-term potentiation in the hippocampus CA1 region, which is thought to underlie learning and memory.

Regulation of NMDA receptor Ca2+ signalling and synaptic plasticity

NMDARs (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors) are critical for synaptic function throughout the CNS (central nervous system). NMDAR-mediated Ca(2+) influx is implicated in neuronal differentiation, neuronal migration, synaptogenesis, structural remodelling, long-lasting forms of synaptic plasticity and higher cognitive functions. NMDAR-mediated Ca(2+) signalling in dendritic spines is not static, but can be remodelled in a cell- and synapse-specific manner by NMDAR subunit composition, protein kinases and neuronal activity during development and in response to sensory experience. Recent evidence indicates that Ca(2+) permeability of neuronal NMDARs, NMDAR-mediated Ca(2+) signalling in spines and induction of NMDAR-dependent LTP (long-term potentiation) at hippocampal Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses are under control of the cAMP/PKA (protein kinase A) signalling cascade. Thus, by enhancing Ca(2+) influx through NMDARs in spines, PKA can regulate the induction of LTP. An emerging concept is that activity-dependent regulation of NMDAR-mediated Ca(2+) signalling by PKA and by extracellular signals that modulate cAMP or protein phosphatases at synaptic sites provides a dynamic and potentially powerful mechanism for bi-directional regulation of synaptic efficacy and remodelling.

Structural plasticity of dentate granule cell mossy fibers during the development of limbic epilepsy

Altered granule cell>>CA3 pyramidal cell synaptic connectivity may contribute to the development of limbic epilepsy. To explore this possibility, granule cell giant mossy fiber bouton plasticity was examined in the kindling and pilocarpine models of epilepsy using green fluorescent protein-expressing transgenic mice. These studies revealed significant increases in the frequency of giant boutons with satellite boutons 2 days and 1 month after pilocarpine status epilepticus, and increases in giant bouton area at 1 month. Similar increases in giant bouton area were observed shortly after kindling. Finally, both models exhibited plasticity of mossy fiber giant bouton filopodia, which contact GABAergic interneurons mediating feedforward inhibition of CA3 pyramids. In the kindling model, however, all changes were fleeting, having resolved by 1 month after the last evoked seizure. Together, these findings demonstrate striking structural plasticity of granule cell mossy fiber synaptic terminal structure in two distinct models of adult limbic epileptogenesis. We suggest that these plasticities modify local connectivities between individual mossy fiber terminals and their targets, inhibitory interneurons, and CA3 pyramidal cells potentially altering the balance of excitation and inhibition during the development of epilepsy.

Activity-dependent synaptic plasticity of NMDA receptors

Activity-dependent, bidirectional control of synaptic efficacy is thought to contribute to many forms of experience-dependent plasticity, including learning and memory. Although most excitatory synapses contain both AMPA and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (AMPARs and NMDARs), most studies have focused on the plasticity of synaptic AMPARs, and on the pivotal role of NMDA receptors for its induction. Here we review evidence that synaptic NMDARs themselves are subject to long-term activity-dependent changes by mechanisms that may differ from that of synaptic AMPARs. The bidirectional modulation of NMDAR-mediated synaptic responses is likely to have important functional implications for NMDAR-dependent forms of synaptic plasticity.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent long-term potentiation

The induction of the most common form of LTP is well known to involve activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. However, considerable evidence has also shown that certain forms of LTP induction at excitatory synapses onto both principle cells and interneurons are dependent on activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). mGluR-dependent LTP occurs in widespread areas of the brain including the neocortex, hippocampus, striatum and nucleus accumbens. mGluR-dependent forms of LTP have been found to be diverse, involving activation of mGluR1 or mGluR5 and can be of AMPAR-mediated transmission or of NMDAR-mediated transmission. Furthermore, the mGluR-dependent LTP may involve activation of other receptors, in particular, activation of NMDAR, dopamine and adenosine receptors. mGluR-dependent LTP can be expressed presynaptically or postsynaptically, and can involve a range of intracellular mediators including protein kinase C (PKC) and protein kinase A (PKA), tyrosine kinase Src and nitric oxide (NO).

Burst-timing-dependent plasticity of NMDA receptor-mediated transmission in midbrain dopamine neurons

Bursts of spikes triggered by sensory stimuli in midbrain dopamine neurons evoke phasic release of dopamine in target brain areas, driving reward-based reinforcement learning and goal-directed behavior. NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) play a critical role in the generation of these bursts. Here we report LTP of NMDAR-mediated excitatory transmission onto dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra. Induction of LTP requires burst-evoked Ca2+ signals amplified by preceding metabotropic neurotransmitter inputs in addition to the activation of NMDARs themselves. PKA activity gates LTP induction by regulating the magnitude of Ca2+ signal amplification. This form of plasticity is associative, input specific, reversible, and depends on the relative timing of synaptic input and postsynaptic bursting in a manner analogous to the timing rule for cue-reward learning paradigms in behaving animals. NMDAR plasticity might thus represent a potential neural substrate for conditioned dopamine neuron burst responses to environmental stimuli acquired during reward-based learning.

Endocannabinoid-mediated long-term depression in the avian midbrain expressed presynaptically and postsynaptically

Here, we examined long-term synaptic plasticity in the avian auditory midbrain, a region involved in experience-dependent learning. We found that coactivation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) and type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1R) induces long-term depression (LTD) at the synapse between the central shell and the external portion of the inferior colliculus of the chicken. Although endocannabinoids are commonly thought of as presynaptic modulators, recent reports have suggested that they can also modulate the postsynaptic site. In the avian midbrain, we found that LTD is mediated by both presynaptic and postsynaptic changes. The presynaptic mechanism consists of a decrease in neurotransmitter release, whereas a depression of NMDAR-mediated current takes place on the postsynaptic side. Both the presynaptic and the postsynaptic effects depend on CB1R activation. The reduction of postsynaptic NMDAR currents represents a novel role of endocannabinoids in synaptic modulation.

Extrasynaptic NR2D-containing NMDARs are recruited to the synapse during LTP of NMDAR-EPSCs

Long-term potentiation of NMDA-receptor-mediated synaptic transmission (NMDAR-LTP) is a little-understood form of plasticity. In the present study, we investigated whether NMDAR-LTP in the dentate gyrus involves recruitment of extrasynaptic NMDARs, because NMDARs are expressed both synaptically and extrasynaptically with evidence for subtype differences at different locations. We show that before induction of NMDAR-LTP, pharmacological inhibition of glutamate transporters resulted in glutamate spillover from the synapse and activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs. After the induction of NMDAR-LTP, such activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs was absent. Activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs after glutamate uptake inhibition also occurred when synaptic NMDARs were inhibited with MK801 [(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo [a,d] cyclohepten-5,10-imine maleate], and this extrasynaptically mediated NMDAR-EPSC was strongly reduced by prior induction of NMDAR-LTP. The extrasynaptic NMDARs were shown to be NR2D-containing, because the activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs by glutamate spillover was prevented by the NR2D-selective antagonists PPDA [(2R*,3S*)-1-(phenanthrenyl-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid] and UBP141. Further studies using selective antagonists for NR2A- and NR2B-containing NMDARs demonstrated that synaptic NMDARs are predominantly NR2A-containing and NR2B-containing receptors, whereas the extrasynaptic NMDARs are complex multimeric receptors with NR2A, NR2B, or NR2D subunits. Our results show that LTP of NMDAR-EPSCs involves movement of NMDARs from an extrasynaptic to a synaptic location and suggest a novel physiological role for extrasynaptic NMDARs.

The two sides of hippocampal mossy fiber plasticity

Two studies in this issue of Neuron (Kwon and Castillo and Rebola et al.) show that the mossy fiber-CA3 pyramidal neuron synapse, a hippocampal synapse well known for its presynaptic plasticity, exhibits a novel form of long-term potentiation of NMDAR-mediated currents, which is induced and expressed postsynaptically.

Nicotinic receptors containing the alpha7 subunit: a model for rational drug design

The neuronal nicotinic receptor has gained considerable recognition as a target, not just for combating drug addiction but also for treating a number of illnesses ranging from neurodegenerative diseases to psychotic disorders like schizophrenia. This recognition has led to a burgeoning field examining the receptor at all levels. A class of nicotinic receptors that contains the alpha7 gene product, apparently as a homomer, illustrates this multidisciplinary approach. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of this class of receptors based on data from molecular, structural, physiological and patho-physiological studies. These studies have set the stage for rational drug design to combat disorders of the central nervous system. The studies also exemplify the cautious approach needed in developing CNS therapies and the importance of physiology in tempering drug design.