Advanced Materials for Use in Soft Self-Healing Devices

A gas-plastic elastomer that quickly self-heals damage with the aid of CO2 gas

Self-healing materials are highly desirable because they allow products to maintain their performance. Typical stimuli used for self-healing are heat and light, despite being unsuitable for materials used in certain products as heat can damage other components, and light cannot reach materials located within a product or device. To address these issues, here we show a gas-plastic elastomer with an ionically crosslinked silicone network that quickly self-heals damage in the presence of CO₂ gas at normal pressures and room temperature. While a strong elastomer generally exhibits slow self-healing properties, CO₂ effectively softened ionic crosslinks in the proposed elastomer, and network rearrangement was promoted. Consequently, self-healing was dramatically accelerated by ~10-fold. Moreover, self-healing was achieved even at -20 °C in the presence of CO₂ and the original mechanical strength was quickly re-established during the exchange of CO₂ with air.

Metallogels: Availability, Applicability, and Advanceability

Introducing metal components into gel matrices provides an effective strategy to develop soft materials with advantageous properties such as: optical activity, conductivity, magnetic response activity, self-healing activity, catalytic activity, etc. In this context, a thorough overview of application-oriented metallogels is provided. Considering that many well-established metallogels start from serendipitous discoveries, insights into the structure-gelation relationship will offer a profound impact on the development of metallogels. Initially, design strategies for discovering new metallogels are discussed, then the advanced applications of metallogels are summarized. Finally, perspectives regarding the design of metallogels, the potential applications of metallogels and their derivative materials are briefly proposed.

Bio-Integrated Wearable Systems: A Comprehensive Review

Bio-integrated wearable systems can measure a broad range of biophysical, biochemical, and environmental signals to provide critical insights into overall health status and to quantify human performance. Recent advances in material science, chemical analysis techniques, device designs, and assembly methods form the foundations for a uniquely differentiated type of wearable technology, characterized by noninvasive, intimate integration with the soft, curved, time-dynamic surfaces of the body. This review summarizes the latest advances in this emerging field of "bio-integrated" technologies in a comprehensive manner that connects fundamental developments in chemistry, material science, and engineering with sensing technologies that have the potential for widespread deployment and societal benefit in human health care. An introduction to the chemistries and materials for the active components of these systems contextualizes essential design considerations for sensors and associated platforms that appear in following sections. The subsequent content highlights the most advanced biosensors, classified according to their ability to capture biophysical, biochemical, and environmental information. Additional sections feature schemes for electrically powering these sensors and strategies for achieving fully integrated, wireless systems. The review concludes with an overview of key remaining challenges and a summary of opportunities where advances in materials chemistry will be critically important for continued progress.

Sodium Hyaluronate: A Versatile Polysaccharide toward Intrinsically Self-Healable Energy-Storage Devices

Self-healability is an attractive feature for next-generation energy-storage devices aiming at flexible/wearable electronics. However, realizing self-healability usually involves complicated molecular design and synthetic processes. Here, we demonstrate that sodium hyaluronate (SH), a kind of natural polysaccharide, can be used as a versatile polymer to facile fabricate intrinsically self-healable energy-storage devices. Self-healable sodium ion batteries and asymmetric capacitors are fabricated by integrating their electroactive components into dynamic SH networks cross-linked via borate ester bonding. The devices autonomously recover their configuration integrity, microstructure, and mechanical and electrochemical properties even after nine cycles of breaking/healing, exhibiting excellent reliability, easy maintenance, and superior safety. The electrochemical performances and self-healability are estimated to be the best among those of the existing self-healable energy-storage devices. This facile and versatile strategy might greatly accelerate the design and fabrication of smart and robust energy-storage devices applicable for advanced flexible electronics or soft robot, and so on.

A Freestanding Stretchable and Multifunctional Transistor with Intrinsic Self-Healing Properties of all Device Components

A flexible and stretchable field-effect transistor (FET) is an essential element in a number of modern electronics. To realize the potential of this device in harsh real-world conditions and to extend its application spectrum, new functionalities are needed to be introduced into the device. Here, solution-processable elements based on carbon nanotubes that empower flexible and stretchable FET with high hole-mobility (µ_h ≈ 10 cm² V^-1 s^-1 ) and relatively low operating voltages (<8 V) and that retain self-healing properties of all FET components are reported. The device has repeatable intrinsic and autonomic self-healing ability, namely without use of any external trigger, enabling the restoration of its electrical and mechanical properties, both after microscale damage or complete cut of the device-for example by a scissor. The device can be repeatedly stretched for >200 cycles of up to 50% strain without a significant loss in its electrical properties. The device is applicable in the form of a ≈3 µm thick freestanding skin tattoo and has multifunctional sensing properties, such as detection of temperature and humidity. With this unprecedented biomimetic transistor, highly sustainable and reliable soft electronic applications can be introduced.

Multifunctional Self-Healing Ionogels from Supramolecular Assembly: Smart Conductive and Remarkable Lubricating Materials

Self-healing ionogel is a promising smart material because of its high conductivity and reliable stimuli responsiveness upon mechanical damage. However, self-healing ionogels possessing rapid, complete recovery properties and multifunctionality are still limited. Herein, we designed a new d-gluconic acetal-based gelator (PB8) bearing a urea group in the alkyl side chain. Interestingly, the balance between hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of the molecule is achieved. Thus, PB8 could form transparent ionogels because of its excellent affinity to ionic liquids (ILs), which exhibited appropriate mechanical strength, high viscoelasticity, and efficient self-healing properties. The presence of synergistic effects from hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, and interactions between the urea-containing side chains was responsible for the self-assembly of gelators in ILs and the self-healing property mainly related to the side chains of PB8. Interestingly, the transparent PB8-IL4 ionogel possessed high conductivity and mechanical strength, moldable and injectable properties, and rapid and complete self-healing characteristics (complete recovery within 14 min), which showed excellent performance as a smart ionic conductor. Furthermore, the self-healing PB8-based ionogels with anticorrosion properties are a remarkable lubricating material in the steel-steel contact and exhibited excellent lubricating performances. Overall, an efficient PB8-based ionogel with self-healing properties has been developed for potential use both as a smart electrical conductor and as a high-performance lubricating material. The unique structure of PB8 bearing a urea group in the side chain is found to be responsible for the multifunctional ionogel formation.

Design of Novel Self-Healing Thermoplastic Vulcanizates Utilizing Thermal/Magnetic/Light-Triggered Shape Memory Effects

We designed novel self-healing thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPVs), achieving excellent thermal/magnetic/light-triggered shape memory assisted self-healing behavior. Damage on polylactide (PLA)/epoxidized natural rubber (ENR)/Fe₃O₄ TPVs could be healed via three events synergistically: the shape memory effect of TPVs resulted in the physical contact of damaged surfaces; the desorption-absorption of ENR/Fe₃O₄-bound rubber promoted interdiffusion of ENR chains, leading to the self-healing of ENR phase; ENR was grafted onto PLA segments to assist PLA rearranging and entangling again to achieve the repair of TPVs. This self-healing TPV is reported for the first time and paves the way to design next-generation self-healing materials.

Intelligent Biomimetic Chameleon Skin with Excellent Self-Healing and Electrochromic Properties

Animals such as chameleons possess a natural ability to adjust their skin color as a preventive measure to deter any potential threat and to self-heal damaged skin tissues. Inspired by this, we present here a copolymer film possessing biomimetic properties that simultaneously integrates electrochromic triphenylamine and self-healing Diels-Alder groups. The flexible and stretchable copolymer film acts like natural chameleon skin, which exhibits significant color variation and also possesses excellent self-healing properties. These remarkable features make it a promising material for overcoming the crack-generation issue inherited by conventional biomimetic chameleon skin. Moreover, a flexible and wearable skin device based on the copolymer film with silver fabric as a electrode has also been fabricated. The electrochromic and self-healing properties were verified for the copolymer film, and it has been elucidated that the intelligent biomimetic "chameleon skin" was a new step toward the development of highly advanced biomimetic materials and devices.

Materials and Wearable Devices for Autonomous Monitoring of Physiological Markers

Wearable devices are gaining considerable attention owing to the ease with which they can collect crucial information in real-time, both continuously and noninvasively, regarding a wearer's health. A concise summary is given of the three main elements that enable autonomous detection and monitoring of the likelihood or the existence of a health-risk state in continuous and real-time modes, with an emphasis on emerging materials and fabrication techniques in the relevant fields. The first element is the sensing technology used in the noninvasive detection of physiological markers relevant to the state of health. The second element is self-powered devices for longer periods of use by drawing energy from bodily movement and temperature. The third element is the self-healing properties of the materials used in the wearable devices to extended usage if they become scratched or cut. Promises and challenges of the separately reviewed parts and the combined parts are presented and discussed. Ideas regarding further improvement of skin-based wearable devices are also presented and discussed.

Colorless, Transparent, Robust, and Fast Scratch-Self-Healing Elastomers via a Phase-Locked Dynamic Bonds Design

Robust self-healing thermoplastic elastomers are expected to have repeated healing capability, remarkable mechanical properties, transparency, and superior toughness. The phase-locked design in this work provides excellent tensile mechanical properties and efficient healability at a moderate temperature due to the dynamic disulfide bonds embedded in the hard segments and mainly being locked in the viscoelastic hard microphase region. The self-healing elastomers exhibit a maximum tensile stress of 25 MPa and a fracture strain of over 1600%, which are quite prominent compared to previous reports. The nanoscale domains of the elastomer are smaller than the wavelength of visible light by microphase separation control resulting in colorless, nearly 100% transparency, and are as good as quartz glasses. The high dynamics of the phase-locked disulfide bonds renders a high healing efficiency of scratches on the surface within 60 s at 70 °C. The rapid scratch healing and complete transparency recovery of the elastomers provide new avenues in the highly transparent surface or protective films which finds potential applications for precision optical lenses, flexible display screens, and automobile or aircraft lighting finishes.

Carbon quantum dot-based fluorescent vesicles and chiral hydrogels with biosurfactant and biocompatible small molecule

In recent years, it is heartening to witness that carbon quantum dots (CQDs), a rising star in the family of carbon nanomaterials, have displayed tremendous applications in bioimaging, biosensing, drug delivery, optoelectronics, photovoltaics and photocatalysis. However, the investigations toward self-assembly of CQDs are still in their infancy. The participation of CQDs can bring additional functions to supramolecular self-assemblies, with photoluminescent property as the most exciting aspect. Here, we introduce CQDs into two types of classic colloidal systems containing low molecular weight surfactant and gelator to construct fluorescent vesicles and chiral hydrogels. The CQD-based vesicles were constructed through electrostatic interaction between the positively charged CQDs with peripherally substituted imidazolium cations and a negatively-charged biosurfactant, i.e., sodium deoxycholate (NaDC). The chiral hydrogels were prepared by increasing the concentration of NaDC and addition of a tripeptide (glutathione, GSH). It was found that both the hydrogels and corresponding xerogels are highly photoluminescent. A solid sensing system was prepared by coating a uniform layer of the hydrogel onto the silica gel plates by doctor blade technique followed by air-drying, which was then utilized to semiquantitatively detect Cu2+ in aqueous solutions.

Chemically Modified Polyaniline for the Detection of Volatile Biomarkers of Minimal Sensitivity to Humidity and Bending

Flexible sensors can be widely used in future wearable devices to monitor people's health states. However, most of the sensors are sensitive to humidity and bending effects, limiting their application in a real-world environment. A new strategy is proposed for obtaining flexible sensors with good tolerance to humidity. By integrating a hydrophobic layer on the surface of doped polyaniline, a flexible sensor that can resist water response with a concentration up to 350 ppm is developed. Good resilience against mechanical bending is also achieved in this flexible sensor. These results may trigger a renaissance in flexible sensor applications for disease diagnosing by wearable devices.

Molecular Approach to Conjugated Polymers with Biomimetic Properties

The field of bioelectronics involves the fascinating interplay between biology and human-made electronics. Applications such as tissue engineering, biosensing, drug delivery, and wearable electronics require biomimetic materials that can translate the physiological and chemical processes of biological systems, such as organs, tissues. and cells, into electrical signals and vice versa. However, the difference in the physical nature of soft biological elements and rigid electronic materials calls for new conductive or electroactive materials with added biomimetic properties that can bridge the gap. Soft electronics that utilize organic materials, such as conjugated polymers, can bring many important features to bioelectronics. Among the many advantages of conjugated polymers, the ability to modulate the biocompatibility, solubility, functionality, and mechanical properties through side chain engineering can alleviate the issues of mechanical mismatch and provide better interface between the electronics and biological elements. Additionally, conjugated polymers, being both ionically and electrically conductive through reversible doping processes provide means for direct sensing and stimulation of biological processes in cells, tissues, and organs. In this Account, we focus on our recent progress in molecular engineering of conjugated polymers with tunable biomimetic properties, such as biocompatibility, responsiveness, stretchability, self-healing, and adhesion. Our approach is general and versatile, which is based on functionalization of conjugated polymers with long side chains, commonly polymeric or biomolecules. Applications for such materials are wide-ranging, where we have demonstrated conductive, stimuli-responsive antifouling, and cell adhesive biointerfaces that can respond to external stimuli such as temperature, salt concentration, and redox reactions, the processes that in turn modify and reversibly switch the surface properties. Furthermore, utilizing the advantageous chemical, physical, mechanical and functional properties of the grafts, we progressed into grafting of the long side chains onto conjugated polymers in solution, with the vision of synthesizing solution-processable conjugated graft copolymers with biomimetic functionalities. Examples of the developed materials to date include rubbery and adhesive photoluminescent plastics, biomolecule-functionalized electrospun biosensors, thermally and dually responsive photoluminescent conjugated polymers, and tunable self-healing, adhesive, and stretchable strain sensors, advanced functional biocidal polymers, and filtration membranes. As outlined in these examples, the applications of these biomimetic, conjugated polymers are still in the development stage toward truly printable, organic bioelectronic devices. However, in this Account, we advocate that molecular engineering of conjugated polymers is an attractive approach to a versatile class of organic electronics with both ionic and electrical conductivity as well as mechanical properties required for next-generation bioelectronics.

Self-Healable, Stretchable, Transparent Triboelectric Nanogenerators as Soft Power Sources

Despite the rapid advancements of soft electronics, developing compatible energy devices will be the next challenge for their viable applications. Here, we report an energy-harnessing triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) as a soft electrical power source, which is simultaneously self-healable, stretchable, and transparent. The nanogenerator features a thin-film configuration with buckled Ag nanowires/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) composite electrode sandwiched in room-temperature self-healable poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) elastomers. Dynamic imine bonds are introduced in PDMS networks for repairing mechanical damages (94% efficiency), while the mechanical recovery of the elastomer is imparted to the buckled electrode for electrical healing. By adjusting the buckling wavelength of the electrode, the stretchability and transparency of the soft TENG can be tuned. A TENG (∼50% stretchabitliy, ∼73% transmittance) can recover the electricity genearation (100% healing efficiency) even after accidental cutting. Finally, the conversion of biomechanical energies into electricity (∼100 V, 327 mW/m²) is demonstrated by a skin-like soft TENG. Considering all these merits, this work suggests a potentially promising approach for next-generation soft power sources.

Self-Healing Electronic Materials for a Smart and Sustainable Future

The survivability of living organisms relies critically on their ability to self-heal from damage in unpredictable situations and environmental variability. Such abilities are most important in external facing organs such as the mammalian skin. However, the properties of bulk elemental materials are typically unable to perform self-repair. Consequently, most conventional smart electronic devices today are not designed to repair themselves when damaged. Thus, inspired by the remarkable capability of self-healing in natural systems, smart self-healing materials are being intensively researched to mimic natural systems to have the ability to partially or completely self-repair damages inflicted on them. This exciting area of research could potentially power a sustainable and smart future.

Enhancing the Mechanical Durability of Icephobic Surfaces by Introducing Autonomous Self-Healing Function

Ice accretion presents a severe risk for human safety. Although great efforts have been made for developing icephobic surfaces (the surface with an ice adhesion strength below 100 kPa), expanding the lifetime of state-of-the-art icephobic surfaces still remains a critical unsolved issue. Herein, a novel icephobic material is designed by integrating an interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) into an autonomous self-healing elastomer, which is applied in anti-icing for enhancing the mechanical durability. The molecular structure, surface morphology, mechanical properties, and durable icephobicity of the material were studied. The creep behaviors of the new icephobic material, which were absent in most relevant studies on self-healing materials, were also investigated in this work. Significantly, the material showed great potentials for anti-icing applications with an ultralow ice adhesion strength of 6.0 ± 0.9 kPa, outperforming many other icephobic surfaces. The material also exhibited an extraordinary durability, showing a very low long-term ice adhesion strength of ∼12.2 kPa after 50 icing/deicing cycles. Most importantly, the material was able to exhibit a self-healing property from mechanical damages in a sufficiently short time, which shed light on the longevity of icephobic surfaces in practical applications.

Vitrimer Elastomer-Based Jigsaw Puzzle-Like Healable Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Wearable Electronics

Functional polymers possess outstanding uniqueness in fabricating intelligent devices such as sensors and actuators, but they are rarely used for converting mechanical energy into electric power. Here, a vitrimer based triboelectric nanogenerator (VTENG) is developed by embedding a layer of silver nanowire percolation network in a dynamic disulfide bond-based vitrimer elastomer. In virtue of covalent dynamic disulfide bonds in the elastomer matrix, a thermal stimulus enables in situ healing if broken, on demand reconfiguration of shape, and assembly of more sophisticated structures of VTENG devices. On rupture or external damage, the structural integrity and conductivity of VTENG are restored under rapid thermal stimulus. The flexible and stretchable VTENG can be scaled up akin to jigsaw puzzles and transformed from 2D to 3D structures. It is demonstrated that this self-healable and shape-adaptive VTENG can be utilized for mechanical energy harvesters and self-powered tactile/pressure sensors with extended lifetime and excellent design flexibility. These results show that the incorporation of organic materials into electronic devices can not only bestow functional properties but also provide new routes for flexible device fabrication.

A semi-permanent and durable nanoscale-crack-based sensor by on-demand healing

Although sensitivity and durability are desirable in a sensor, both of them cannot be easily achieved. Site-specific and effective signal acquisition on the limited area of a sensor inevitably allows fatigue accumulation and contamination. For example, an ultrasensitive nanoscale-crack-based sensor for detecting a mechanical stimulus with tremendous sensitivity (a gauge factor greater than 2000 under 2% strain), yet limited durability (up to a few thousand stretching cycles in tensile tests) has been presented previously. Herein, we suggest a simple yet robust nanoscale-crack-based sensor that achieves remarkable durability through the use of a self-healable polymer. The self-healable polymer helps the crack gap recover and maintain high stability for 1 million cycles under 2% strain. Moreover, site-specific recovery with infrared light irradiation was demonstrated with monolithic arrayed sensors. The proposed strategy provides a unique solution to achieving highly enhanced durability and high mechanosensitivity, which are typically incompatible.

Thermo-reversible self-healing in a fluorous crosslinked copolymer

Self-healing in a fluorous copolymer material enhances its safety index and extends its working lifetime.

Improvement and tuning of the performance of light-healable polymers by variation of the monomer content

High-performing crosslinked epoxy coatings that possess room temperature self-healing ability by the use of a newly synthesised dynamic diamine crosslinker.

Self-healable electroluminescent devices

Electroluminescent (EL) devices have been extensively integrated into multi-functionalized electronic systems in the role of the vitally constituent light-emitting part. However, the lifetime and reliability of EL devices are often severely restricted by concomitant damage, especially when the strain exceeds the mechanical withstanding limit. We report a self-healable EL device by adopting a modified self-healable polyacrylic acid hydrogel as the electrode and a self-healable polyurethane as a phosphor host to realize the first omni-layer-healable light-emitting device. The physicochemical properties of each functionalized layer can be efficiently restored after experiencing substantial catastrophic damage. As a result, the luminescent performance of the self-healable EL devices is well recovered with a high healing efficiency (83.2% for 10 healing cycles at unfixed spots, and 57.7% for 20 healing cycles at a fixed spot). In addition, inter-device healing has also been developed to realize a conceptual "LEGO"-like assembly process at the device level for light-emitting devices. The design and realization of the self-healable EL devices may revive their performance and expand their lifetime even after undergoing a deadly cut. Our self-healable EL devices may serve as model systems for electroluminescent applications of the recently developed ionically conductive healable hydrogels and dielectric polymers.

Smart Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices with Self-Protection and Self-Adaptation Abilities

Currently, with booming development and worldwide usage of rechargeable electrochemical energy storage devices, their safety issues, operation stability, service life, and user experience are garnering special attention. Smart and intelligent energy storage devices with self-protection and self-adaptation abilities aiming to address these challenges are being developed with great urgency. In this Progress Report, we highlight recent achievements in the field of smart energy storage systems that could early-detect incoming internal short circuits and self-protect against thermal runaway. Moreover, intelligent devices that are able to take actions and self-adapt in response to external mechanical disruption or deformation, i.e., exhibiting self-healing or shape-memory behaviors, are discussed. Finally, insights into the future development of smart rechargeable energy storage devices are provided.

Tough, Stretchable, Compressive Novel Polymer/Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite Hydrogels with Excellent Self-Healing Performance

Designing hydrogels with high mechanical properties without sacrificing their self-healing efficiencies remains great challenges. We have fabricated cationic polyacrylamide/graphene oxide (GO) hydrogels by free-radical polymerization of acrylamide (AM) and 2-(dimethylamino)ethylacrylatemethochloride (DAC) in the presence of GO. The mechanical properties and self-healing ability can be tuned by the GO content and the mass ratio of AM and DAC. The ionic bonds between DAC and GO and the hydrogen bonds between AM and GO can efficiently dissipate energy and rebuild the networks. The resulting composite hydrogels possess high stiffness (Young's modulus: ∼1.1 MPa), high toughness (∼9.3 MJ m^-3), and high fatigue resistance, as well as high self-healing efficiency (>92% of tensile strength, >99% of tensile strain and >93% of toughness). In addition, the completely dried hydrogels can recover their original mechanical values by spraying water and still possess outstanding self-healing efficiency. Our design can provide better fundamental understanding of physical properties of hydrogels and should enable the development of tough, self-healing hydrogels for practical applications.

Carbon Dots as Fillers Inducing Healing/Self-Healing and Anticorrosion Properties in Polymers

Self-healing is the way by which nature repairs damage and prolongs the life of bio entities. A variety of practical applications require self-healing materials in general and self-healing polymers in particular. Different (complex) methods provide the rebonding of broken bonds, suppressing crack, or local damage propagation. Here, a simple, versatile, and cost-effective methodology is reported for initiating healing in bulk polymers and self-healing and anticorrosion properties in polymer coatings: introduction of carbon dots (CDs), 5 nm sized carbon nanocrystallites, into the polymer matrix forming a composite. The CDs are blended into polymethacrylate, polyurethane, and other common polymers. The healing/self-healing process is initiated by interfacial bonding (covalent, hydrogen, and van der Waals bonding) between the CDs and the polymer matrix and can be optimized by modifying the functional groups which terminate the CDs. The healing properties of the bulk polymer-CD composites are evaluated by comparing the tensile strength of pristine (bulk and coatings) composites to those of fractured composites that are healed and by following the self-healing of scratches intentionally introduced to polymer-CD composite coatings. The composite coatings not only possess self-healing properties but also have superior anticorrosion properties compared to those of the pure polymer coatings.

Self-Healing, Highly Sensitive Electronic Sensors Enabled by Metal-Ligand Coordination and Hierarchical Structure Design

Electronic sensors capable of capturing mechanical deformation are highly desirable for the next generation of artificial intelligence products. However, it remains a challenge to prepare self-healing, highly sensitive, and cost-efficient sensors for both tiny and large human motion monitoring. Here, a new kind of self-healing, sensitive, and versatile strain sensors has been developed by combining metal-ligand chemistry with hierarchical structure design. Specifically, a self-healing and nanostructured conductive layer is deposited onto a self-healing elastomer substrate cross-linked by metal-ligand coordinate bonds, forming a hierarchically structured sensor. The resultant sensors exhibit high sensitivity, low detection limit (0.05% strain), remarkable self-healing capability, as well as excellent reproducibility. Notably, the self-healed sensors are still capable to precisely capture not only tiny physiological activities (such as speech, swallowing, and coughing) but also large human motions (finger and neck bending, touching). Moreover, harsh treatments, including bending over 50000 times and mechanical washing, could not influence the sensitivity and stability of the self-healed sensors in human motion monitoring. This proposed strategy via alliance of metal-ligand chemistry and hierarchical structure design represents a general approach to manufacturing self-healing, robust sensors, and other electronic devices.

New insights and perspectives into biological materials for flexible electronics

Materials based on biological materials are becoming increasingly competitive and are likely to be critical components in flexible electronic devices.