Vaccine technologies: From whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies

Injectable Hydrogels Coencapsulating Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor and Ovalbumin Nanoparticles to Enhance Antigen Uptake Efficiency

The combination of an antigen and adjuvant has synergistic effects on an immune response. Coadministration of an antigen and a granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) hydrogel delivery system will afford a novel strategy for enhancement of an immune response because of the dual role of the hydrogel as a vaccine carrier with a sustained release and a platform for recruiting dendritic cells (DCs). Herein, an injectable poly(caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(caprolactone) thermosensitive hydrogel coencapsulating GM-CSF and ovalbumin nanoparticles was developed to enhance antigen uptake efficiency. The GM-CSF released from the hydrogel ensured accumulation of DCs; this effect improved the antigen uptake efficiency with the targeted delivery to antigen-presenting cells. Furthermore, the dual delivery system induced a stronger immune effect, including higher CD8⁺ T proportion, interferon γ secretion, and a greater cytotoxic T lymphocyte response, which may benefit from the recruitment of DCs, increasing antigen residence time, and the controllable antigen release owing to the combined effect of the hydrogel and nanoparticles. Meanwhile, the real-time antigen delivery process in vivo was revealed by a noninvasive fluorescence imaging method. All of the results indicated that the visible dual delivery system may have a greater potential for the efficient and trackable vaccine delivery.

Polymeric Nanocapsules for Vaccine Delivery: Influence of the Polymeric Shell on the Interaction With the Immune System

The use of biomaterials and nanosystems in antigen delivery has played a major role in the development of novel vaccine formulations in the last few decades. In an effort to gain a deeper understanding of the interactions between these systems and immunocompetent cells, we describe here a systematic in vitro and in vivo study on three types of polymeric nanocapsules (NCs). These carriers, which contained protamine (PR), polyarginine (PARG), or chitosan (CS) in the external shell, and their corresponding nanoemulsion were prepared, and their main physicochemical properties were characterized. The particles had a mean particle size in the range 250–450 nm and a positive zeta potential (~30–40 mV). The interaction of the nanosystems with different components of the immune system were investigated by measuring cellular uptake, reactive oxygen species production, activation of the complement cascade, cytokine secretion profile, and MAP kinases/nuclear factor κB activation. The results of these in vitro cell experiments showed that the NC formulations that included the arginine-rich polymers (PR and PARG) showed a superior ability to trigger different immune processes. Considering this finding, protamine and polyarginine nanocapsules (PR and PARG NCs) were selected to assess the association of the recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen (rHBsAg) as a model antigen to evaluate their ability to produce a protective immune response in mice. In this case, the results showed that PR NCs elicited higher IgG levels than PARG NCs and that this IgG response was a combination of anti-rHBsAg IgG1/IgG2a. This work highlights the potential of PR NCs for antigen delivery as an alternative to other positively charged nanocarriers.

Coiled coil protein origami: from modular design principles towards biotechnological applications

This review illustrates the current state in designing coiled-coil-based proteins with an emphasis on coiled coil protein origami structures and their potential.

Co-Stimulation of BCR and Toll-Like Receptor 7 Increases Somatic Hypermutation, Memory B Cell Formation, and Secondary Antibody Response to Protein Antigen

The goal of immunization is to produce both a flood of antibodies to neutralize antigen and memory cells to accelerate the secondary response. To enhance the generation of memory B cells, we examined the effect of co-engaging BCR and toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 receptors by immunizing mice with a hapten-protein antigen, NP-CGG, and a ligand, R837 (imiquimod). During the early and late primary responses, there was no augmentation with R837 on the number of germinal center B cells or serum antibody. However, in the niche of germinal centers, R837 increased somatic hypermutation in the canonical V_H1-72 gene that encodes NP-specific antibody. Increased mutation was not due to enhanced expression of activation-induced deaminase, but was likely a result of selection for high-affinity B cells with altered codons in the gene. This correlated with the appearance of antigen-specific B cells with a memory phenotype, which was intrinsic to TLR7 on B cells. To determine if these memory cells produced a recall response after a secondary challenge, spleen cells from mice that were immunized with NP-CGG and R837 were adoptively transferred into muMT recipients, and boosted with NP-CGG. Cells from mice that initially received both antigen and R837 generated a robust increase in germinal center B cells, plasmablasts, plasma cells, and serum antibody, compared with their cohorts who received antigen alone. These results support the use of co-immunization with TLR7 ligands to promote vigorous memory B cell responses to protein antigens.

Evaluation of lumazine synthase from Bacillus anthracis as a presentation platform for polyvalent antigen display

Polyvalent antigen display is an effective strategy to enhance the immunogenicity of subunit vaccines by clustering them in an array-like manner on a scaffold system. This strategy results in a higher local density of antigens, increased high avidity interactions with B cells and other antigen presenting cells, and therefore a more effective presentation of vaccine antigens. In this study, we used lumazine synthase (LS), an icosahedral symmetry capsid derived from Bacillus anthracis, as a scaffold to present 60 copies of a linear B cell epitope (PB10) from the ricin toxin fused to the C terminus of LS via four different linkers. We then investigated the effects of linker length, linker rigidity and formaldehyde crosslinking on the protein assembly, conformational integrity, thermal stability, in vitro antibody binding, and immunogenicity in mice. Fusion of the PB10 peptide onto LS, with varying linker lengths, did not affect protein assembly, thermal stability or exposure of the epitope, but had a minor impact on protein conformation. Formaldehyde crosslinking considerably improved protein thermal stability with only minor impact on protein conformation. All LS_PB10 constructs, when administered to mice by injection without adjuvant, elicited measurable anti-ricin serum IgG titers, although the titers were not sufficient to confer protection against a 10× lethal dose ricin challenge. This work sheds light on the biophysical properties, immunogenicity and potential feasibility of LS from B. anthracis as a scaffold system for polyvalent antigen display.

The use of a P. falciparum specific coiled-coil domain to construct a self-assembling protein nanoparticle vaccine to prevent malaria

Background

The parasitic disease malaria remains a major global public health concern and no truly effective vaccine exists. One approach to the development of a malaria vaccine is to target the asexual blood stage that results in clinical symptoms. Most attempts have failed. New antigens such as P27A and P27 have emerged as potential new vaccine candidates. Multiple studies have demonstrated that antigens are more immunogenic and are better correlated with protection when presented on particulate delivery systems. One such particulate delivery system is the self-assembling protein nanoparticle (SAPN) that relies on coiled-coil domains of proteins to form stable nanoparticles. In the past we have used de novo designed amino acid domains to drive the formation of the coiled-coil scaffolds which present the antigenic epitopes on the particle surface.

Results

Here we use naturally occurring domains found in the tex1 protein to form the coiled-coil scaffolding of the nanoparticle. Thus, by engineering P27A and a new extended form of the coiled-coil domain P27 onto the N and C terminus of the SAPN protein monomer we have developed a particulate delivery system that effectively displays both antigens on a single particle that uses malaria tex1 sequences to form the nanoparticle scaffold. These particles are immunogenic in a murine model and induce immune responses similar to the ones observed in seropositive individuals in malaria endemic regions.

Conclusions

We demonstrate that our P27/P27A-SAPNs induce an immune response akin to the one in seropositive individuals in Burkina Faso. Since P27 is highly conserved among different Plasmodium species, these novel SAPNs may even provide cross-protection between Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax the two major human malaria pathogens. As the SAPNs are also easy to manufacture and store they can be delivered to the population in need without complication thus providing a low cost malaria vaccine.

Harnessing self-assembled peptide nanoparticles in epitope vaccine design

Vaccination has been one of the most successful breakthroughs in medical history. In recent years, epitope-based subunit vaccines have been introduced as a safer alternative to traditional vaccines. However, they suffer from limited immunogenicity. Nanotechnology has shown value in solving this issue. Different kinds of nanovaccines have been employed, among which virus-like nanoparticles (VLPs) and self-assembled peptide nanoparticles (SAPNs) seem very promising. Recently, SAPNs have attracted special interest due to their unique properties, including molecular specificity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. They also resemble pathogens in terms of their size. Their multivalency allows an orderly repetitive display of antigens on their surface, which induces a stronger immune response than single immunogens. In vaccine design, SAPN self-adjuvanticity is regarded an outstanding advantage, since the use of toxic adjuvants is no longer required. SAPNs are usually composed of helical or β-sheet secondary structures and are tailored from natural peptides or de novo structures. Flexibility in subunit selection opens the door to a wide variety of molecules with different characteristics. SAPN engineering is an emerging area, and more novel structures are expected to be generated in the future, particularly with the rapid progress in related computational tools. The aim of this review is to provide a state-of-the-art overview of self-assembled peptide nanoparticles and their use in vaccine design in recent studies. Additionally, principles for their design and the application of computational approaches to vaccine design are summarized.

Immunization with Recombinant TcdB-Encapsulated Nanocomplex Induces Protection against Clostridium difficile Challenge in a Mouse Model

Clostridium difficile is considered to be one of the major cause of infectious diarrhea in healthcare systems worldwide. Symptoms of C. difficile infection are caused largely by the production of two cytotoxins: toxin A (TcdA) and toxin B (TcdB). Vaccine development is considered desirable as it would decrease the mounting medical costs and mortality associated with C. difficile infections. Biodegradable nanoparticles composed of poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) and chitosan have proven to be a safe and effective antigen delivery system for many viral vaccines. However, few studies have used this efficient antigen carrier for bacterial vaccine development. In this study, we eliminated the toxin activity domain of toxin B by constructing a recombinant protein rTcdB consists of residues 1852-2363 of TcdB receptor binding domain. The rTcdB was encapsulated in nanoparticles composed of γ-PGA and chitosan. Three rounds of intraperitoneal vaccination led to high anti-TcdB antibody responses and afforded mice full protection mice from lethal dose of C. difficile spore challenge. Protection was associated with high levels of toxin-neutralizing antibodies, and the rTcdB-encapsulated NPs elicited a longer-lasting antibody titers than antigen with the conventional adjuvant, aluminum hydroxide. Significant reductions in the level of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were observed in vaccinated mouse. These results suggested that polymeric nanocomplex-based vaccine design can be useful in developing vaccine against C. difficile infections.

Applications of Gold Nanoparticles in Nanomedicine: Recent Advances in Vaccines

Nowadays, gold is used in (nano-)medicine, usually in the form of nanoparticles, due to the solid proofs given of its therapeutic effects on several diseases. Gold also plays an important role in the vaccine field as an adjuvant and a carrier, reducing toxicity, enhancing immunogenic activity, and providing stability in storage. An even brighter golden future is expected for gold applications in this area.

Current state and challenges in developing oral vaccines

While vaccination remains the most cost effective strategy for disease prevention, communicable diseases persist as the second leading cause of death worldwide. There is a need to design safe, novel vaccine delivery methods to protect against unaddressed and emerging diseases. Development of vaccines administered orally is preferable to traditional injection-based formulations for numerous reasons including improved safety and compliance, and easier manufacturing and administration. Additionally, the oral route enables stimulation of humoral and cellular immune responses at both systemic and mucosal sites to establish broader and long-lasting protection. However, oral delivery is challenging, requiring formulations to overcome the harsh gastrointestinal (GI) environment and avoid tolerance induction to achieve effective protection. Here we address the rationale for oral vaccines, including key biological and physicochemical considerations for next-generation oral vaccine design.

Tailoring nanostructured lipid carriers for the delivery of protein antigens: Physicochemical properties versus immunogenicity studies

New vaccine formulations are still highly anticipated in the near-future to face incoming health challenges, such as emergence or reemergence of severe infectious diseases, immunosenescence associated with elderly or the spread of pathogens resistant to antibiotics. In particular, new nanoparticle-based adjuvants are promising for sub-unit vaccines in order to elicit potent and long lasting immune responses with a better control on their safety. In this context, an innovative delivery system of protein antigens has been designed based on the chemical grafting of the antigen onto the shell of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC). By using the well-known ovalbumin (OVA) as model of protein antigen, we have compared the immunogenicity properties in mice of different formulations of NLC grafted with OVA, by studying the influence of two main parameters: the size (80 nm versus 120 nm) and the surface charge (anionic versus cationic). We have shown that all mice immunized with OVA delivered through NLC produced much higher antibody titers for all tested formulations as compared to that immunized with OVA or OVA formulated in Complete Freund Adjuvant (CFA, positive control). More interestingly, the 80 nm anionic lipid particles were the most efficient antigen carrier for eliciting higher humoral immune response, as well as cellular immune response characterized by a strong secretion of gamma interferon (IFN-γ). These results associated with the demonstrated non-immunogenicity of the NLC carrier by itself open new avenues for the design of smart sub-unit vaccines containing properly engineered lipid nanoparticles which could stimulate or orient the immune system in a specific way.

Bioengineering towards self-assembly of particulate vaccines

There is an unmet demand for safe and efficient vaccines for prevention of various infectious diseases. Subunit vaccines comprise selected pathogen specific antigens are a safe alternative to whole organism vaccines. However they often lack immunogenicity. Natural and synthetic self-assembling polymers and proteins will be reviewed in view their use to encapsulate and/or display antigens to serve as immunogenic antigen carriers for induction of protective immunity. Recent advances made in in vivo assembly of antigen-displaying polyester inclusions will be a focus. Particulate vaccines are inherently immunogenic due to enhanced uptake by antigen presenting cells which process antigens mediating adaptive immune responses. Bioengineering approaches enable the design of tailor-made particulate vaccines to fine tune immune responses towards protective immunity.

Biotechnology approaches to produce potent, self-adjuvanting antigen-adjuvant fusion protein subunit vaccines

Traditional vaccination approaches (e.g. live attenuated or killed microorganisms) are among the most effective means to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. These approaches, nevertheless, have failed to yield successful vaccines against many important pathogens. To overcome this problem, methods have been developed to identify microbial components, against which protective immune responses can be elicited. Subunit antigens identified by these approaches enable the production of defined vaccines, with improved safety profiles. However, they are generally poorly immunogenic, necessitating their administration with potent immunostimulatory adjuvants. Since few safe and effective adjuvants are currently used in vaccines approved for human use, with those available displaying poor potency, or an inability to stimulate the types of immune responses required for vaccines against specific diseases (e.g. cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) to treat cancers), the development of new vaccines will be aided by the availability of characterized platforms of new adjuvants, improving our capacity to rationally select adjuvants for different applications. One such approach, involves the addition of microbial components (pathogen-associated molecular patterns; PAMPs), that can stimulate strong immune responses, into subunit vaccine formulations. The conjugation of PAMPs to subunit antigens provides a means to greatly increase vaccine potency, by targeting immunostimulation and antigen to the same antigen presenting cell. Thus, methods that enable the efficient, and inexpensive production of antigen-adjuvant fusions represent an exciting mean to improve immunity towards subunit antigens. Herein we review four protein-based adjuvants (flagellin, bacterial lipoproteins, the extra domain A of fibronectin (EDA), and heat shock proteins (Hsps)), which can be genetically fused to antigens to enable recombinant production of antigen-adjuvant fusion proteins, with a focus on their mechanisms of action, structural or sequence requirements for activity, sequence modifications to enhance their activity or simplify production, adverse effects, and examples of vaccines in preclinical or human clinical trials.