Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research

Signatures of life course socioeconomic conditions in brain anatomy

Socioeconomic status (SES) plays a significant role in health and disease. At the same time, early-life conditions affect neural function and structure, suggesting the brain may be a conduit for the biological embedding of SES. Here, we investigate the brain anatomy signatures of SES in a large-scale population cohort aged 45-85 years. We assess both gray matter morphometry and tissue properties indicative of myelin content. Higher life course SES is associated with increased volume in several brain regions, including postcentral and temporal gyri, cuneus, and cerebellum. We observe more widespread volume differences and higher myelin content in the sensorimotor network but lower myelin content in the temporal lobe associated with childhood SES. Crucially, childhood SES differences persisted in adult brains even after controlling for adult SES, highlighting the unique contribution of early-life conditions to brain anatomy, independent of later changes in SES. These findings inform on the biological underpinnings of social inequality, particularly as they pertain to early-life conditions.

School Climate, Cortical Structure, and Socioemotional Functioning: Associations across Family Income Levels

School climates are important for children's socioemotional development and may also serve as protective factors in the context of adversity. Nevertheless, little is known about the potential neural mechanisms of such associations, as there has been limited research concerning the relation between school climate and brain structure, particularly for brain regions relevant for mental health and socioemotional functioning. Moreover, it remains unclear whether the role of school climate differs depending on children's socioeconomic status. We addressed these questions in baseline data for 9- to 10-year-olds from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study (analytic sample for socioemotional outcomes, n = 8,887), conducted at 21 sites across the United States. Cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and subcortical volume were derived from T1-weighted brain magnetic resonance imaging. School climate was measured by youth report, and socioemotional functioning was measured by both youth and parent report. A positive school climate and higher family income were associated with lower internalizing and externalizing symptoms, with no evidence of moderation. There were no associations between school climate and cortical thickness or subcortical volume, although family income was positively associated with hippocampal volume. For cortical surface area, however, there was both a positive association with family income and moderation: There was an interaction between school climate and income for total cortical surface area and locally in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. In all cases, there was an unexpected negative association between school climate and cortical surface area in the lower-income group. Consequently, although the school climate appears to be related to better socioemotional function for all youth, findings suggest that the association between a positive school environment and brain structure only emerges in the context of socioeconomic stress and adversity. Longitudinal data are needed to understand the role of these neural differences in socioemotional functioning over time.

Lower Socioeconomic Position Is Associated with Greater Activity in and Integration within an Allostatic-Interoceptive Brain Network in Response to Affective Stimuli

Socioeconomic inequities shape physical health and emotional well-being. As such, recent work has examined the neural mechanisms through which socioeconomic position (SEP) may influence health. However, there remain critical gaps in knowledge regarding the relationships between SEP and brain function. These gaps include a lack of research on: (1) the association between SEP and brain functioning in later life, (2) relationships between SEP and functioning of the whole brain beyond specific regions of interest, and (3) how neural responses to positive affective stimuli differ by SEP. The current study addressed these gaps by examining the association between SEP (i.e., education, income) and neural responses to affective stimuli among 122 mid- to late-life adults. During MRI scanning, participants viewed 30 positive, 30 negative, and 30 neutral images; activation and network connectivity analyses explored associations between SEP and neural responses to these affective stimuli. Analyses revealed that those with lower SEP showed greater neural activity to both positive and negative images in regions within the allostatic-interoceptive network, a system of regions implicated in representing and regulating physiological states of the body and the external environment. There were no positive associations between SEP and neural responses to negative or positive images. In addition, graph-theory network analyses showed that individuals with lower SEP demonstrated greater global efficiency within the allostatic-interoceptive network and executive control network, across all task conditions. The findings suggest that lower SEP is associated with enhanced neural sensitivity to affective cues that may be metabolically costly to maintain over time and suggest a mechanism by which SEP might get "under the skull" to influence mental and physical well-being.

Kindergarten-Based Progressive Muscle Relaxation Training Enhances Attention and Executive Functioning in 5-6-year-old Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial

In the present study we assessed the impact of kindergarten-based progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) on attention and executive functioning of 5-6-year-old children. In this randomized-controlled trial, 52 children (26 female; 26 male; M age = 5.4, SD = 0.2 years) from two private Tunisian kindergartens were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Over 12 weeks, 18 children performed PMR in two 30-minute sessions/week, another 17 children performed generic physical education (PE) for two 30-minute sessions/week, and 17 children in a control group (CG) had no systematically guided physical activity and engaged in usual self-chosen activities like free play or artisanal activities during Kindergarten hours. Prior to (T0) and after (T1) the 12-week PMR intervention, all participants completed the Visuomotor Precision and Statue subtests of the Neuropsychological Evaluation Battery (NEPSY-2), the Teddy Bear Cancellation Test, and the Rey Simple Figure Test. While there were no significant group differences at T0, repeated measures analysis of variance revealed higher scores for the PMR group relative to both the PE and CG groups on measures of attention, visuomotor precision, memory, and motor inhibition. PMR provided an effective relaxation technique and enhanced attention and executive functioning of these 5-6-year-old children, with important implications for assisting learning and academic achievement among young children.

Associations among Household and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantages, Resting-state Frontoamygdala Connectivity, and Internalizing Symptoms in Youth

Exposure to socioeconomic disadvantages (SED) can have negative impacts on mental health, yet SED are a multifaceted construct and the precise processes by which SED confer deleterious effects are less clear. Using a large and diverse sample of preadolescents (ages 9-10 years at baseline, n = 4038, 49% female) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, we examined associations among SED at both household (i.e., income-needs and material hardship) and neighborhood (i.e., area deprivation and neighborhood unsafety) levels, frontoamygdala resting-state functional connectivity, and internalizing symptoms at baseline and 1-year follow-up. SED were positively associated with internalizing symptoms at baseline and indirectly predicted symptoms 1 year later through elevated symptoms at baseline. At the household level, youth in households characterized by higher disadvantage (i.e., lower income-to-needs ratio) exhibited more strongly negative frontoamygdala coupling, particularly between the bilateral amygdala and medial OFC (mOFC) regions within the frontoparietal network. Although more strongly positive amygdala-mOFC coupling was associated with higher levels of internalizing symptoms at baseline and 1-year follow-up, it did not mediate the association between income-to-needs ratio and internalizing symptoms. However, at the neighborhood level, amygdala-mOFC functional coupling moderated the effect of neighborhood deprivation on internalizing symptoms. Specifically, higher neighborhood deprivation was associated with higher internalizing symptoms for youth with more strongly positive connectivity, but not for youth with more strongly negative connectivity, suggesting a potential buffering effect. Findings highlight the importance of capturing multilevel socioecological contexts in which youth develop to identify youth who are most likely to benefit from early interventions.

Rapid vigilance and episodic memory decrements in COVID-19 survivors

Recent studies indicate that COVID-19 infection can lead to serious neurological consequences in a small percentage of individuals. However, in the months following acute illness, many more suffer from fatigue, low motivation, disturbed mood, poor sleep and cognitive symptoms, colloquially referred to as 'brain fog'. But what about individuals who had asymptomatic to moderate COVID-19 and reported no concerns after recovering from COVID-19? Here, we examined a wide range of cognitive functions critical for daily life (including sustained attention, memory, motor control, planning, semantic reasoning, mental rotation and spatial-visual attention) in people who had previously suffered from COVID-19 but were not significantly different from a control group on self-reported fatigue, forgetfulness, sleep abnormality, motivation, depression, anxiety and personality profile. Reassuringly, COVID-19 survivors performed well in most abilities tested, including working memory, executive function, planning and mental rotation. However, they displayed significantly worse episodic memory (up to 6 months post-infection) and greater decline in vigilance with time on task (for up to 9 months). Overall, the results show that specific chronic cognitive changes following COVID-19 are evident on objective testing even amongst those who do not report a greater symptom burden. Importantly, in the sample tested here, these were not significantly different from normal after 6-9 months, demonstrating evidence of recovery over time.

Neurobehavioral abnormalities following prenatal psychosocial stress are differentially modulated by maternal environment

Prenatal stress (PS) is associated with increased vulnerability to affective disorders. Transplacental glucocorticoid passage and stress-induced maternal environment alterations are recognized as potential routes of transmission that can fundamentally alter neurodevelopment. However, molecular mechanisms underlying aberrant emotional outcomes or the individual contributions intrauterine stress versus maternal environment play in shaping these mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we report anxiogenic behaviors, anhedonia, and female hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hyperactivity as a consequence of psychosocial PS in mice. Evidence of fetal amygdala programming precedes these abnormalities. In adult offspring, we observe amygdalar transcriptional changes demonstrating sex-specific dysfunction in synaptic transmission and neurotransmitter systems. We find these abnormalities are primarily driven by in-utero stress exposure. Importantly, maternal care changes postnatally reverse anxiety-related behaviors and partially rescue gene alterations associated with neurotransmission. Our data demonstrate the influence maternal environment exerts in shaping offspring emotional development despite deleterious effects of intrauterine stress.

Developmental cascades and educational attainment

Developmental cascades describe how systems of development interact and influence one another to shape human development across the lifespan. Despite its popularity, developmental cascades are commonly used to understand the developmental course of psychopathology, typically in the context of risk and resilience. Whether this framework can be useful for studying children's educational outcomes remains underexplored. Therefore, in this chapter, we provide an overview of how developmental cascades can be used to study children's academic development, with a particular focus on the biological, cognitive, and contextual pathways to educational attainment. We also provide a summary of contemporary statistical methods and highlight existing data sets that can be used to test developmental cascade models of educational attainment from birth through adulthood. We conclude the chapter by discussing the challenges of this research and explore important future directions of using developmental cascades to understand educational attainment.

Postpartum scarcity-adversity disrupts maternal behavior and induces a hypodopaminergic state in the rat dam and adult female offspring

Postpartum adversity is among the strongest predictors for the emergence of postpartum depression (PPD) in humans and a translational risk factor employed in rodent models. Parental care is disturbed under conditions of environmental adversity, including low resource environments, and in PPD. Nonetheless, the neural changes associated with these adversity-induced maladaptive behavioral states remain poorly understood. Postpartum scarcity-adversity can be modeled in rats by providing the dam with limited bedding and nesting (LBN) materials, which mimics the effects of a stressful low resource environment in potentiating maltreatment/neglect in humans. Indeed, LBN exposure from postpartum days (PD) 2-9 increased adverse maternal behaviors, impaired pup retrieval, and increased passive stress coping responses. Since mesolimbic dopamine (DA) activity is an important mechanism for motivated maternal behavior and is implicated in PPD, we assessed the impact of postpartum scarcity-adversity on in vivo electrophysiological properties of ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA neurons at two timepoints. We found reduced numbers of active VTA DA neurons in LBN dams at PD 9-10 but not PD-21, suggesting a transient impact on VTA population activity in LBN dams. Finally, we assessed the impact of early life scarcity-adversity on VTA DA function by conducting VTA recordings in adult female offspring and found a long-lasting attenuation in DA activity. These findings highlight a link between adversity-induced deficits in DA function and disrupted maternal behavior, suggesting the VTA/mesolimbic DA system as a potential mechanism by which postpartum scarcity-adversity drives aberrant maternal behavior, and early postnatal programming of adult VTA function in the offspring.

Socioeconomic Status, Urbanization and Executive Functions Development: Differences Between Urban and Rural Children

Abstract Socioeconomic Status (SES) has been linked to the development of Executive Functions (EF) usually by means of parental education and family income. Living conditions related to urbanization characteristics are rarely considered. This cross-sectional study investigated the performance in EF tasks of 99 Brazilian children aged 6 to 8 years residing in rural and urban regions. Results showed that children who lived in the rural area performed better than those who lived in the industrial city in the working memory and inhibitory tasks. Social interactions and urbanization conditions, such as parent occupations and social stratification, may explain these differences. Therefore, urbanization conditions of locations where families live should be considered in future studies concerning the influences of SES in EF development.

Impacts of a perinatal exposure to manganese coupled with maternal stress in rats: Maternal somatic measures and the postnatal growth and development of rat offspring

Psychological stress experienced by the mother during pregnancy has been associated with emotional and cognitive disorders in children such as depression and anxiety. Socioeconomically disadvantaged populations are vulnerable to adverse life experiences and can also be disproportionally exposed to environmental contaminants. To better understand the neurodevelopmental impacts of an environmental toxicant coupled with elevated psychological stress, we exposed pregnant rats to a series of perinatal stressors. Manganese (Mn), a neurotoxicant at excessive concentrations was delivered through drinking water (0, 2, or 4 mg/mL) from gestational day (GD) 7 to postnatal day (PND) 22. A variable stress paradigm was applied to half of the animals from GD13 to PND9. Measurements of somatic development and behavior were examined in the offspring at different developmental stages. No evidence of overt maternal toxicity was observed although the 4 mg/mL Mn-exposed dams gained less body weight during gestation compared to the other dams. Stress also reduced gestational maternal weight gain. Daily fluid consumption normalized for body weight was decreased in the Mn-exposed dams in a dose-dependent manner but was not altered by the stress paradigm. Maternal stress and/or Mn exposure did not affect litter size or viability, but pup weight was significantly reduced in the 4 mg/mL Mn-exposed groups on PNDs 9 through 34 when compared to the other offspring groups. The efficacy of the manipulations to increase maternal stress levels was determined using serum corticosterone as a biomarker. The baseline concentration was established prior to treatment (GD7) and levels were low and similar in all treatment groups. Corticosterone levels were elevated in the perinatal-stress groups compared to the no-stress groups, regardless of Mn exposure, on subsequent time points (GD16, PND9), but were only significantly different on GD16. An analysis of tissue concentrations revealed Mn was elevated similarly in the brain and blood of offspring at PND2 and at PND22 in a significant dose-dependent pattern. Dams also showed a dose-dependent increase in Mn concentrations in the brain and blood; the addition of stress increased the Mn concentrations in the maternal blood but not the brain. Perinatal stress did not alter the effects of Mn on the maternal or offspring somatic endpoints described here.

Immune Dysregulation Is Associated with Neurodevelopment and Neurocognitive Performance in HIV Pediatric Populations-A Scoping Review

HIV-1 is known for its complex interaction with the dysregulated immune system and is responsible for the development of neurocognitive deficits and neurodevelopmental delays in pediatric HIV populations. Considering that HIV-1-induced immune dysregulation and its association with neurodevelopmental and neurocognitive impairments in pediatric populations are not well understood, we conducted a scoping review on this topic. The study aimed to systematically review the association of blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) immune markers with neurocognitive deficits and neurodevelopmental delays in pediatric HIV populations. PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched using a search protocol designed specifically for this study. Studies were selected based on a set eligibility criterion. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were assessed by two independent reviewers. Data from the selected studies were extracted and analyzed by two independent reviewers. Seven studies were considered eligible for use in this context, which included four cross-sectional and three longitudinal studies. An average of 130 (±70.61) children living with HIV, 138 (±65.37) children exposed to HIV but uninfected and 90 (±86.66) HIV-negative participants were included across the seven studies. Results indicate that blood and CSF immune markers are associated with neurocognitive development/performance in pediatric HIV populations. Only seven studies met the inclusion criteria, therefore, these limited the number of significant conclusions which could have been made by using such an approach. All considered, the evidence suggests that immune dysregulation, as in the case of adult HIV populations, also has a significant association with neurocognitive performance in pediatric HIV populations.

Below Average Cognitive Ability-An under Researched Risk Factor for Emotional-Behavioural Difficulties in Childhood

Children with below average cognitive ability represent a substantial yet under-researched population for whom cognitive and social demands, which increase in complexity year by year, may pose significant challenges. This observational study examines the longitudinal relationship between early cognitive ability and emotional-behavioral difficulties (EBDs) between the age of three and nine. Participants include 7134 children from the population-based cohort study growing up in Ireland. Cognitive ability was measured at age three using the Picture Similarities Scale. A t-score one to two standard deviations below the mean was defined as below average cognitive ability (n = 767). EBDs were measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) at three, five, and nine years of age. Generalized linear mixed models and logistic regression were used to examine the relationship. Below average cognitive ability was an independent predictor of higher longitudinal SDQ scores. After adjustment, children with below average cognitive ability were 1.39 times more likely (AOR 1.39, 95% CI 1.17–1.66, p < 0.001) to experience a clinically significant EBD between the ages of three to nine years. This study demonstrates the increased risk of EBDs for children with below average cognitive ability. A scalable method of early identification of at-risk children should be a research priority for public health, enabling early intervention for cognitive and adaptive outcomes.

On Neuroeducation: Why and How to Improve Neuroscientific Literacy in Educational Professionals

New findings from the neurosciences receive much interest for use in the applied field of education. For the past 15 years, neuroeducation and the application of neuroscience knowledge were seen to have promise, but there is presently some lack of progress. The present paper states that this is due to several factors. Neuromyths are still prevalent, and there is a confusion of tongues between the many neurodisciplines and the domains of behavioral and educational sciences. Second, a focus upon cognitive neuroimaging research has yielded findings that are scientifically relevant, but cannot be used for direct application in the classroom. A third factor pertains to the emphasis which has been on didactics and teaching, whereas the promise of neuroeducation for the teacher may lie more on pedagogical inspiration and support. This article states that the most important knowledge and insights have to do with the notion of brain plasticity; the vision that development is driven by an interaction between a person's biology and the social system. This helps individuals to select and process information, and to adapt to the personal environment. The paper describes how brain maturation and neuropsychological development extend through the important period of adolescence and emergent adulthood. Over this long period, there is a major development of the Executive Functions (EFs) that are essential for both cognitive learning, social behavior and emotional processing and, eventually, personal growth. The paper describes the basic neuroscience knowledge and insights - or "neuroscientific literacy" - that the educational professional should have to understand and appreciate the above-described themes. The authors formulate a proposal for four themes of neuroscience content "that every teacher should know." These four themes are based on the Neuroscience Core Concepts formulated by the Society for Neuroscience. The authors emphasize that integrating neuroscientific knowledge and insights in the field of education should not be a one-way street; attempts directed at improving neuroscientific literacy are a transdisciplinary undertaking. Teacher trainers, experts from the neuroscience fields but also behavioral scientists from applied fields (notable applied neuropsychologists) should all contribute to for the educational innovations needed.

The Current Status of Neuroprotection in Congenital Heart Disease

Neurological deficits are a serious and common sequelae of congenital heart disease (CHD). While their underlying mechanisms have not been fully characterized, their manifestations are well-known and understood to persist through adulthood. Development of therapies to address or prevent these deficits are critical to attenuate future morbidity and improve quality of life. In this review, we aim to summarize the current status of neuroprotective therapy in CHD. Through an exploration of present research in the pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative phases of patient management, we will describe existing clinical and bench efforts as well as current endeavors underway within this research area.

Identifying Patterns of Youth Resilience to Neighborhood Disadvantage

The present report describes the motivation for the Michigan Twin Neurogenetic Study (MTwiNS), which seeks to illuminate underlying biological mechanisms through which familial and community factors support resilience (i.e., adaptive competence in the face of adversity) in youth exposed to neighborhood disadvantage. To accomplish these goals, we must first understand how resilience manifests in this cohort. The current study uncovers evidence of three domains of youth resilience: psychiatric health, social engagement, and scholastic success. Although all three domains were relatively stable across a one-to-two year period, variability in this stability was observed. Additionally, although resilience in one domain was quite common, resilience across all 3 domains was less common. Finally, we show substantial variability in resilience within and across families, with substantial co-twin discordances that can be leveraged in future analyses that examine promotive contexts that are environmental in origin.

Cognition and Exercise: GENERAL OVERVIEW AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CARDIAC REHABILITATION

Performance of endurance exercise is associated with a broad range of cognitive benefits, with notable improvements shown across a wide variety of populations including healthy populations as well as those with impaired cognition. By examining the effects of exercise in general populations, as well in populations where cognitive deficits are pronounced, and critical to self-care, we can learn more about using exercise to ameliorate cognitive issues and apply that knowledge to other patient populations, such as those eligible for cardiac rehabilitation (CR). Cognitive challenges are a concern within CR, as management of a chronic disease is cognitively taxing, and, as expected, deficits in cognition predict worse outcomes, including lower attendance at CR. Some subsets of patients within CR may be particularly at high risk for cognitive challenges including those with heart failure with low ejection fraction, recent coronary bypass surgery, multiple chronic conditions, and patients of lower socioeconomic status. Attendance at CR is associated with cognitive gains, likely through the progressive exercise component, with larger amounts of exercise over longer periods having greater benefits. Programs should identify at-risk patients, who could gain the most from completing CR, and provide additional support to keep those patients engaged. While engaged in CR, patients should be encouraged to exercise, at least at moderate intensity, and transitioned to a long-term exercise regimen. Overall, CR programs are well-positioned to support these patients and make significant contributions to their long-term well-being.

Epidemics, pandemics, and social conflict: Lessons from the past and possible scenarios for COVID-19

Since COVID-19 broke out, there has been renewed interest in understanding the economic and social dynamics of historical and more recent epidemics and pandemics, from the plagues of Antiquity to modern-day outbreaks like Ebola. These events can have significant impacts on the interplay between poverty and social cohesion, i.e. how different groups in society interact and cooperate to survive and prosper. To that effect, this paper provides a theory-driven overview of how social responses to past epidemics and pandemics were determined by the epidemiological and non-epidemiological characteristics of these outbreaks, with a particular focus on the conditions giving rise to scapegoating and persecution of minority groups, including migrants. We discuss existing theories as well as historical and quantitative studies, and highlight the cases where epidemics and pandemics may lead to milder or more severe forms of scapegoating. Finally, we conclude with a summary of priorities for future research on epidemics, pandemics and social conflict and discuss the possible effects and policy implications of COVID-19.

Addressing bias in big data and AI for health care: A call for open science

Artificial intelligence (AI) has an astonishing potential in assisting clinical decision making and revolutionizing the field of health care. A major open challenge that AI will need to address before its integration in the clinical routine is that of algorithmic bias. Most AI algorithms need big datasets to learn from, but several groups of the human population have a long history of being absent or misrepresented in existing biomedical datasets. If the training data is misrepresentative of the population variability, AI is prone to reinforcing bias, which can lead to fatal outcomes, misdiagnoses, and lack of generalization. Here, we describe the challenges in rendering AI algorithms fairer, and we propose concrete steps for addressing bias using tools from the field of open science.

Lifestyle and the aging brain: interactive effects of modifiable lifestyle behaviors and cognitive ability in men from midlife to old age

We examined the influence of lifestyle on brain aging after nearly 30 years, and tested the hypothesis that young adult general cognitive ability (GCA) would moderate these effects. In the community-dwelling Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging (VETSA), 431 largely non-Hispanic white men completed a test of GCA at mean age 20. We created a modifiable lifestyle behavior composite from data collected at mean age 40. During VETSA, MRI-based measures at mean age 68 included predicted brain age difference (PBAD), Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain signature, and abnormal white matter scores. There were significant main effects of young adult GCA and lifestyle on PBAD and the AD signature (ps ≤ 0.012), and a GCA-by-lifestyle interaction on both (ps ≤ 0.006). Regardless of GCA level, having more favorable lifestyle behaviors predicted less advanced brain age and less AD-like brain aging. Unfavorable lifestyles predicted advanced brain aging in those with lower age 20 GCA, but did not affect brain aging in those with higher age 20 GCA. Targeting early lifestyle modification may promote dementia risk reduction, especially among lower reserve individuals.

Literacy Level and Executive Control in Healthy Older Peruvian Adults

Introduction: Early-life educational experiences are associated with cognitive performance in aging. Early literacy seems to improve executive control mechanisms, however, it is not clear whether early education would still be an advantage in countries like Peru, where access to and quality of education is highly variable.

Aim: Our objective was to analyze the association of literacy level with executive control factors.

Method: We evaluated 93 healthy older adults with a clinical protocol that included the Mini-Mental State Examination, the Geriatric Depression Scale and Global Dementia Staging. We also used a neuropsychological executive function battery which included the Trail-Making Test parts A and B, the Stroop Test, phonological and semantic verbal fluency tasks, Forward and Backward Digits, Numbers and Letters of the Wechsler Scale, and the Go/No-Go task. We used a principal component analysis for the dimensional reduction of the variables. To measure the level of literacy we used the word accentuation test (WAT).

Results: We observed statistically significant correlations between the principal components (PCs) of working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control with the WAT scores. Furthermore, we observed that processing speed and WAT predict the scores on PCs factors better than years of education and age.

Conclusions: Literacy level correlates more closely with better cognitive performance than years of education and thus, might improve executive control factors that could compensate and protect against brain changes in cognitive decline and dementia.

Association of language proficiency, sociodemographics, and neurocognitive functioning in dual-language Latino survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoma (ALL/LL) are at risk for cognitive dysfunction, but little is known about its relationship with language proficiency and sociodemographics.

PROCEDURE

In this cross-sectional cohort study of Latino survivors of childhood ALL/LL, English and Spanish language proficiency and cognitive and academic functioning were measured and their associations determined using paired t-tests, Pearson correlations, and linear regressions.

RESULTS

Participants (N = 57; 50.9% female) had mean ages (years ± SD) of 4.3 ± 2.6 at diagnosis and 10.6 ± 2.9 at testing (range 6-16); mean time post treatment was 3.7 ± 2.6 years. The majority (73.7%) had low socioeconomic status (SES). Most (78.8%) were dual-language learners in English and Spanish. English proficiency was graded as limited-to-fluent and was significantly higher than Spanish (p < .001). Higher SES was correlated with higher English proficiency (r = 0.31, p = .020). Males had higher Spanish proficiency (r = -0.32, p = .034). Controlling for SES and sex, English proficiency accounted for 43% of cognitive functioning variance (F = 14.86, p < .001), 55% of reading comprehension variance (F = 22.14, p < .001), and 21% of mathematics variance (F = 5.76, p = .002).

CONCLUSIONS

Low language proficiency correlated with SES but was independently associated with lower cognitive and academic functioning. Research and surveillance for neurocognitive late effects in Latino ALL/LL survivors should incorporate measures of language proficiency and SES to account for their effects on cognitive and academic functioning.

Similar but distinct - Effects of different socioeconomic indicators on resting state functional connectivity: Findings from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study®

Early socioeconomic status (SES) has consistently been associated with child health and cognitive outcomes, in addition to alterations in brain function and connectivity. The goal of the present study was to probe the effects of different facets of SES (parent education, income, and neighborhood disadvantage), that likely represent varying aspects of the environment, on resting state functional connectivity (rsFC). We investigated this question in a large sample of 9475 children (aged 9–10 years) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Specifically, we analyzed the association between household SES (parent education, income-to-needs ratio) and neighborhood disadvantage, and system-level rsFC using within-sample split-half replication. We then tested whether the associations were unique to each SES measure, and whether household SES and neighborhood disadvantage had interactive effects on rsFC. SES measures had both common and distinct effects on rsFC, with sensory-motor systems (e.g., sensorimotor network) and cognitive networks (e.g., front-parietal network) particularly implicated. Further, the association between neighborhood disadvantage and sensorimotor network connectivity was less pronounced in the presence of high income-to-needs. Findings demonstrate that different facets of SES have distinct and interacting effects on rsFC, highlighting the importance of considering different indicators when studying the effects of SES on the brain.

Maternal perinatal depression and child executive function: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Maternal depression during the perinatal period predicts adverse developmental outcomes for children, via poorly understood mechanisms. One plausible pathway may involve child executive function, a suite of cognitive capacities associated with social, emotional and educational outcomes. Systematic review and meta-analysis are applied to evaluate evidence of association between maternal perinatal depression and child executive function.

METHODS

Medline, Embase, PubMed, PsycInfo, and SCOPUS were searched for relevant articles to August 2020, with hand-search of relevant bibliographies. Original research published in English measuring maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy and the first year postpartum, and child executive function outcomes at any age was included. 27 studies met criteria for review. 16 studies reporting raw data of the association between depressive symptoms and executive function were used for meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Our systematic review identified inadequate assessment of maternal depression, and unreliable measures of executive function in many studies. Assessment of confounders was also inconsistent. Our meta-analysis identified a small, statistically significant relationship between perinatal depression and child executive function (effect size r = 0.07; 95% CI 0.03-0.10); equivalent to Cohen's d = 0.14.

LIMITATIONS

Variable quality of available studies leads to cautious interpretation of results.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis is consistent with the hypothesis that maternal perinatal depression does have an impact on executive function in offspring. Future studies must use robust measurement of depression and executive function, and account for the chronicity of maternal depression, and developmental context to produce meaningful results.

Duration of Breastfeeding Mediates the Association Between Early Socioeconomic Risk and Child Vocabulary at Age 4

OBJECTIVE

Early-life socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with both obesity and lower cognitive abilities in childhood. One theorized underlying mechanism is breastfeeding duration because breast milk contains nutrients that can promote healthy adiposity profiles and stimulate brain development. However, studies have rarely examined these potential associations with child body mass index (BMI) in high-income Western countries, much less investigated breastfeeding duration as a mediator of the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and later child vocabulary. The current study aimed to prospectively examine associations between early-life family socioeconomic risk and both child BMI and vocabulary at age 4 in a Norwegian cohort and the potential mediating contribution of breastfeeding duration.

METHODS

The Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS) followed 1159 families and their children from 6 months of age onward. Parents reported on SES and breastfeeding duration in infancy, and child BMI and vocabulary ability were assessed at age 4. Direct and indirect effects were estimated using a path model that adjusted for several demographic and perinatal covariates (e.g., parental nativity and birthweight).

RESULTS

Family socioeconomic risk was significantly and negatively related to child vocabulary but was unrelated to child BMI. In addition, breastfeeding duration mediated the association between family socioeconomic risk and child vocabulary, with greater family socioeconomic risk associated with a shorter breastfeeding duration, which, in turn, predicted poorer child vocabulary.

CONCLUSION

The current findings suggest that longer breastfeeding duration is a viable target for preventatively promoting child vocabulary, especially among families at socioeconomic risk.

Developmental brain dynamics of numerical and arithmetic abilities

The development of numerical and arithmetic abilities constitutes a crucial cornerstone in our modern and educated societies. Difficulties to acquire these central skills can lead to severe consequences for an individual's well-being and nation's economy. In the present review, we describe our current broad understanding of the functional and structural brain organization that supports the development of numbers and arithmetic. The existing evidence points towards a complex interaction among multiple domain-specific (e.g., representation of quantities and number symbols) and domain-general (e.g., working memory, visual-spatial abilities) cognitive processes, as well as a dynamic integration of several brain regions into functional networks that support these processes. These networks are mainly, but not exclusively, located in regions of the frontal and parietal cortex, and the functional and structural dynamics of these networks differ as a function of age and performance level. Distinctive brain activation patterns have also been shown for children with dyscalculia, a specific learning disability in the domain of mathematics. Although our knowledge about the developmental brain dynamics of number and arithmetic has greatly improved over the past years, many questions about the interaction and the causal involvement of the abovementioned functional brain networks remain. This review provides a broad and critical overview of the known developmental processes and what is yet to be discovered.

Causes and Consequences of Interindividual Response Variability: A Call to Apply a More Rigorous Research Design in Acute Exercise-Cognition Studies

The different responses of humans to an apparently equivalent stimulus are called interindividual response variability. This phenomenon has gained more and more attention in research in recent years. The research field of exercise-cognition has also taken up this topic, as shown by a growing number of studies published in the past decade. In this perspective article, we aim to prompt the progress of this research field by (i) discussing the causes and consequences of interindividual variability, (ii) critically examining published studies that have investigated interindividual variability of neurocognitive outcome parameters in response to acute physical exercises, and (iii) providing recommendations for future studies, based on our critical examination. The provided recommendations, which advocate for a more rigorous study design, are intended to help researchers in the field to design studies allowing them to draw robust conclusions. This, in turn, is very likely to foster the development of this research field and the practical application of the findings.

Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by a constellation of affective, interpersonal, lifestyle and antisocial features whose antecedents can be identified in a subgroup of young people showing severe antisocial behaviour. The prevalence of psychopathy in the general population is thought to be ~1%, but is up to 25% in prisoners. The aetiology of psychopathy is complex, with contributions of both genetic and environmental risk factors, and gene-environment interactions and correlations. Psychopathy is characterized by structural and functional brain abnormalities in cortical (such as the prefrontal and insular cortices) and subcortical (for example, the amygdala and striatum) regions leading to neurocognitive disruption in emotional responsiveness, reinforcement-based decision-making and attention. Although no effective treatment exists for adults with psychopathy, preliminary intervention studies targeting key neurocognitive disturbances have shown promising results. Given that psychopathy is often comorbid with other psychiatric disorders and increases the risk of physical health problems, educational and employment failure, accidents and criminality, the identification of children and young people at risk for this personality disorder and preventative work are important. Indeed, interventions that target the antecedents of psychopathic features in children and adolescents have been found to be effective.

Identifying childhood movement profiles and comparing differences in mathematical skills between clusters: A latent profile analysis

The aims of this study were; 1) to identify different movement profiles in sixth graders, and 2) to investigate if there are differences in their mathematical basic (BasicMath) and problem solving (ProbSol) skills between existing movement profiles. The sample included 461 (223 girls, 238 boys) students with a mean age of 11.27 ± .32 years from southern and middle Finland. A latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed four movement profiles: "poor movers", "average movers", "skilled movers" and "expert movers". These profiles differed substantially in their motor competence (MC) and health-related fitness (HRF). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) also revealed that "poor movers" and "average movers" obtained lower results in BasicMath comparing with "skilled movers". The results of this study suggest that cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, MC and BasicMath are interrelated.

Ecological stress, amygdala reactivity, and internalizing symptoms in preadolescence: Is parenting a buffer?

Ecological stress during adolescent development may increase the sensitivity to negative emotional processes that can contribute to the onset and progression of internalizing behaviors during preadolescence. Although a small number of studies have considered the link among the relations between ecological stress, amygdala reactivity, and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence, these studies have largely been small, cross-sectional, and often do not consider unique roles of parenting or sex. In the current study, we evaluated the interrelations between ecological stress, amygdala reactivity, subsequent internalizing symptoms, and the moderating roles of parenting and sex among 9- and 10-year-old preadolescents from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study ®. A subset of participants who met a priori quality control criteria for bilateral amygdala activation during the EN-back faces versus places contrast (N = 7,385; Mean Age = 120 months, SD = 7.52; 49.5% Female) were included in the study. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to create a latent variable of ecological stress, and multiple structural equation models were tested to evaluate the association among baseline ecological stress and internalizing symptoms one year later, the mediating role of amygdala reactivity, and moderating effects of parental acceptance and sex. The results revealed a significant association between ecological stress and subsequent internalizing symptoms, which was greater in males than females. There was no association between amygdala reactivity during the Faces versus Places contrast and ecological stress or subsequent internalizing symptoms, and no mediating role of amygdala or moderating effect of parental acceptance on the association between ecological stress and internalizing symptoms. An alternative mediation model was tested which revealed that there was a small mediating effect of parental acceptance on the association between ecological stress and internalizing symptoms, demonstrating lower internalizing symptoms among preadolescents one year later. Given the lack of association in brain function, ecological stress and internalizing symptoms in preadolescents in this registered report, effects from comparable small studies should be reconsidered in larger samples.

Cognitive interventions in children and adolescents from low socioeconomic status backgrounds: a systematic review protocol of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Many studies have evaluated the effects that a lack of resources has in children's physical and cognitive development. Although there are reviews that have focused on applied interventions from different perspectives, there is still a need for a comprehensive review of what has been attempted with these children from the cognitive intervention field. The aim of this paper is to present a protocol for a systematic review collecting randomized controlled trials (RCTs) studies whose purpose was to enhance cognitive development through the implementation of cognitive interventions in children and adolescents (< 18 years old) from low socioeconomic Status (SES) settings.

METHODS

The following databases will be searched: Web of Science (WoS core collection), PsycINFO, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trial, ERIC, PubMed, ICTRP and Opengrey Register (System for Information of Grey Literature in Europe). Searches will be adapted for each database. Additionally, the reference list of articles included in the review will also be searched. As part of this process, two reviewers will determine, independently, the suitability of each article taking into account predefined inclusion/exclusion criteria. Pertinent data will then be extracted, including sample characteristics, specifics of the intervention, and outcomes, as well as follow-up measures. Internal validity will be assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool. A quantitative synthesis of results will be conducted using a meta-analysis. However, if a meta-analysis is difficult to implement due to the diversity of the studies (for example, in terms of measures used to estimate the effect size, intervention types, outcomes, etc.), the technique synthesis without meta-analysis (SWiM) will be used. A description of outcome measures will be provided, as measured by validated neuropsychological instruments of any cognitive function.

DISCUSSION

The systematic review will offer a framework based on evidence to organisations, institutions, and experts who want to implement or promote interventions aimed at enhancing cognitive domains in children and adolescents who live in disadvantaged contexts.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

This protocol was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) on 16 March 2020 (registration number: CDR42020150238).

Do oral contraceptives affect young women's memory? Dopamine-dependent working memory is influenced by COMT genotype, but not time of pill ingestion

Background

Despite the widespread use of oral contraceptives (OCs), and the well-documented influence of estrogens, notably 17β-estradiol (E2), on cognition, research relating OCs to working memory is limited and mixed. Two factors may contribute to these mixed findings: 1) pharmacokinetics of oral contraceptives, which drive fluctuations in synthetic hormone levels; and 2) genetic polymorphisms related to dopamine degradation and working memory, which interact with E2. This research investigated whether the pharmacokinetics of oral contraceptives, in concert with the single nucleotide polymorphism (Val¹⁵⁸Met; rs4680) of the catechol-o-methyltransferase gene (COMT), influence working memory performance.

Methods

University-age women taking and not taking OCs were tested for working memory and genotyped for COMT. If they were not taking OCs (n = 62), sessions occurred in the early follicular (low E2) and late follicular (high E2) phase. If they were taking OCs (n = 52), sessions occurred 1–2 hours after (high ethinyl estradiol, EE) and ~24 hours after (low EE) pill ingestion. Working memory was tested using the N-back, AX-CPT, Digit Span, and Digit Ordering Tasks. Data were analyzed using multilevel models with estrogen condition, COMT, and group as predictors, controlling for mood and practice effects.

Results

For women taking OCs, time of pill ingestion did not influence performance. However, the subgroup with COMT val/val (low dopamine) were less accurate on 2-back lure trials than those with COMT met/met (high dopamine). For women not taking OCs, cycle phase moderated COMT’s influence on lure accuracy. When compared, women taking OCs had higher AX-CPT proactive control indices than those not taking OCs.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that oral contraceptives are not detrimental for young women’s working memory and that they may increase proactive control. The more pronounced effects of COMT in women taking OCs suggests that, in women taking OCs, suppressed endogenous E2–not fluctuating EE levels–may be more relevant for working memory. Future studies are needed to differentiate effects of endogenous versus synthetic estrogens on working memory.

Developmental trends in early childhood and their predictors from an Indian birth cohort

BACKGROUND

Early childhood developmental pattern analyses not only project future cognition potential, but also identify potential risks for possible intervention. The current study evaluates developmental trends in the first 3 years of life and their predictors in a low and middle income country setting.

METHODS

Trends of early childhood development at 6, 15, 24 and 36 months of age and their predictors were explored in a longitudinal community-based birth cohort study in an urban slum in Vellore, South India. Development was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III (BSID-III).

RESULTS

The birth cohort enrolled 251 children with 94, 91, 91 and 87% follow-up at 6, 15, 24 and 36 months respectively. Child development domains of cognition, language, motor and social skills showed a significant decline in scores between 6 and 36 months of age. Higher socioeconomic position (SEP) and nurturing home environment contributed to increase in cognition scores by 1.9 and 0.9 units respectively. However, stunting caused a decline in cognition scores by 1.7 units. Higher maternal cognition, higher SEP, and caregiver responsivity positively contributed to language change over time, while higher maternal depression contributed negatively. An enriching home environment, growth parameters and blood iron status had positive association with change in motor skills.

CONCLUSIONS

A triple intervention plan to enhance home environment and nurturance, early childhood nutrient supplementation, and maternal education and well-being might prevent child developmental decline in high risk settings.

Cultural Evolution of Genetic Heritability

Behavioral genetics and cultural evolution have both revolutionized our understanding of human behavior-largely independent of each other. Here we reconcile these two fields under a dual inheritance framework, offering a more nuanced understanding of the interaction between genes and culture. Going beyond typical analyses of gene-environment interactions, we describe the cultural dynamics that shape these interactions by shaping the environment and population structure. A cultural evolutionary approach can explain, for example, how factors such as rates of innovation and diffusion, density of cultural sub-groups, and tolerance for behavioral diversity impact heritability estimates, thus yielding predictions for different social contexts. Moreover, when cumulative culture functionally overlaps with genes, genetic effects become masked, unmasked, or even reversed, and the causal effects of an identified gene become confounded with features of the cultural environment. The manner of confounding is specific to a particular society at a particular time, but a WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) sampling problem obscures this boundedness. Cultural evolutionary dynamics are typically missing from models of gene-to-phenotype causality, hindering generalizability of genetic effects across societies and across time. We lay out a reconciled framework and use it to predict the ways in which heritability should differ between societies, between socioeconomic levels and other groupings within some societies but not others, and over the life course. An integrated cultural evolutionary behavioral genetic approach cuts through the nature-nurture debate and helps resolve controversies in topics such as IQ.

Neurologic Complications of Poverty: the Associations Between Poverty as a Social Determinant of Health and Adverse Neurologic Outcomes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Increasing attention has been paid in recent decades to social determinants of health as a risk factor for disease development and disease severity. While traditionally heart disease, family history, lipid profile, and tobacco use have all been associated with increased risk of neurological disease, numerous studies now show that the influence of poverty may be just as strong a risk factor. This study summarizes the recent literature on poverty as it contributes to neurological disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

Children growing up in poverty have increased risk for cognitive deficits and behavioral disorders as reported by Noble et al. (Dev Sci. 9(6):642-54, 2006) and Farah et al. (Brain Res. 1110(1):166-74, 2006) as well as worse outcomes when it comes to epilepsy management and disease course as discussed by Camfield et al. (Epilepsia. 57(11):1826-33, 2016). In adulthood, as the number of social determinants of health increases, the incidence of stroke and severe stroke increases significantly as reported by Reshetnyak et al. (Stroke. 51:2445-53, 2020) as does exposure to neurologically significant infectious diseases and incidence of dementia as reported by Sumilo et al. (Rev Med Virol. 18(2):81-95, 2008) and Zuelsdorff et al. (Alzheimer's Dement. 6(1):e12039, 2020). Social determinants of health including poverty should be considered a risk factor for disease. More attention is needed from clinicians as well as from a public health perspective to address this disparity.

Association Between Habitual Snoring and Cognitive Performance Among a Large Sample of Preadolescent Children

Importance

Previous studies have identified an association between habitual snoring and lower cognitive performance in children. However, whether and to what extent this association is confounded by pertinent demographic, anthropometric, and socioeconomic characteristics is unknown.

Objective

To assess the extent to which potential confounding factors modify the association between parent-reported habitual snoring and cognitive outcomes among a large and diverse sample of typically developing preadolescent children.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional analysis used a baseline data set (version 2.0.1) from children enrolled in the ongoing Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study between September 1, 2016, and October 15, 2018. Children aged 9 to 10 years without serious psychiatric or neurological comorbidities were recruited at 21 research sites in the US. Study recruitment was designed to approximate the racial and socioeconomic diversity of the US population. Data were analyzed from February 1 to March 31, 2020.

Exposures

Parent-reported habitual snoring in children that occurs 3 or more nights per week.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Associations between habitual snoring and cognitive performance were assessed using the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children and the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery, which includes 7 domain-specific and 3 composite (total cognitive function, fluid cognition, and crystallized cognition) standard scores that are uncorrected for covariates. Cognitive performance was examined before and after adjustment for covariates, which included age, sex, body mass index percentile, annual household income before taxes, and highest educational level of caregiver. The extent of confounding was assessed by the effect size, represented by Cohen d, before and after inclusion of covariates using linear mixed-effects models.

Results

A total of 11 873 children aged 9 to 10 years (6187 boys [52.1%]; 6174 White [52.0%]) with available data were included in the study. Of those, habitual snoring (≥3 nights per week) was reported in 810 children (6.8%), and nonhabitual snoring (1-2 nights per week) was reported in 4058 children (34.2%). In the unadjusted models, the total cognitive function composite score among children who habitually snored was significantly lower compared with children who never snored (Cohen d, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.28-0.42). Differences were also identified in the crystallized cognition (Cohen d, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.26-0.41) and fluid cognition (Cohen d, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.21-0.35) composite scores. The association between habitual snoring and cognitive performance was substantially attenuated after adjustment for covariates (Cohen d, 0.16 [95% CI, 0.09 to 0.24] for total cognitive function, 0.14 [95% CI, 0.07 to 0.21] for crystallized cognition, and 0.13 [95% CI, 0.06 to 0.21] for fluid cognition). Similar mitigation was also observed for all domain-specific scores.

Conclusions

In this cross-sectional study, when adjusted for baseline demographic, anthropometric, and socioeconomic characteristics, the association between parent-reported habitual snoring and cognitive performance was substantially attenuated among children aged 9 to 10 years.

Adverse childhood events and cognitive function among young adults: Prospective results from the national longitudinal study of adolescent to adult health

BACKGROUND

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may have lasting impacts on cognition.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if ACE exposure is prospectively associated with cognition in young adults. We hypothesized that deprivation- and threat-type ACEs as well as higher cumulative ACE exposure predict poorer cognition.

PARTICIPANTS & SETTING

Participants were from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a prospective cohort investigation of U.S. adolescents followed to adulthood. Current study participants were 18-24 years old (Wave III), 24-32 years old (Wave IV), and 31-42 years old (Wave V). The maximum Wave IV sample was 12,288 adults; Wave V was 1277 adults.

METHODS

History of ACEs were assessed at Wave III. Three cognitive indicators were assessed at Wave IV and Wave V using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (immediate and delayed verbal memory) and the Digit-Span Backward Task (working memory).

RESULTS

The deprivation ACE of not-having-basic-needs met was associated with poorer working (β = 0.14, CI95 -0.26, -0.01), immediate (β=-0.29, CI95 -0.43, -0.15), and delayed memory (β=-0.27, CI95 -0.43, -0.12) at Wave IV; poorer immediate (β=-0.47, CI95-0.79, -0.16) and delayed memory (β=-0.33, CI95 -0.65, -0.01) at Wave V. The threat ACE of sexual abuse was associated with poorer immediate (β=-0.40, CI95 -0.62, -0.17) and delayed memory (β=-0.29, CI95 -0.55, -0.03) at Wave IV. Higher cumulative ACEs predicted poorer delayed memory (β =-0.05, CI95 -0.10, -0.01) at Wave V.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher ACEs, especially deprivation-type, were prospectively linked to poorer cognition. Early wide-scale screening/tailored treatments addressing ACEs and cognitive function may be warranted.

Impact of individual and neighborhood dimensions of socioeconomic status on the prevalence of mild cognitive impairment over seven-year follow-up

Objectives: There is strong evidence about the association between low socioeconomic status (SES) and higher risk of dementia. However, it has not been conveniently addressed so far the role of SES on the incidence of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). This study examines the impact of individual and neighbourhood dimensions of SES, as well as their interaction, on the risk of developing MCI in a sample of older adults.Method: Data from the Vallecas Project cohort, an ongoing community-based longitudinal study for early detection of cognitive impairment and dementia, were used to build two indices of SES namely individual and neighbourhood, as well as a global SES as a combination of both, and to investigate their effects on MCI conversion by means of a multivariate-adjusted Cox proportional hazard model.Results: A total of 1180 participants aged 70 years and older were enrolled in this study. Of these, 199 cases of MCI (16.9%) were diagnosed at any point of the follow-up. The individual and neighbourhood dimensions of SES played different roles in the dynamics of the MCI occurrence through aging. Most importantly, the risk of developing MCI was almost double for lower SES quartiles when compared to the highest one.Conclusion: The incidence of MCI in older adults was related to both individual characteristics and socioeconomic context. Public health strategies should be holistic and focus not only on promoting the classical individual preventive measures, but also on reducing social inequalities to foster healthy aging and reduce dementia burden.

Children Born Prematurely May Demonstrate Catch-Up Growth in Pre-Adolescence

Introduction Children born prematurely often score lower on standardized tests of language in early childhood. Less is known about longer term outcomes. This investigation considered language outcomes in pre-adolescent children born very preterm/very low birthweight, as assessed by both standardized test scores and language sample measures, and explored attention abilities as a possible moderating factor. Method The present investigation provided a longitudinal follow-up to Mahurin Smith et al. (2014) by examining the language outcomes of 84 children at the 11-year time point (39 with a history of prematurity and 45 born at full term) and a total of 82 at the 12-year time point (37 with a history of prematurity, 45 born at full term). Assessments included subtests of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals- Fourth Edition, productive language measures taken from narrative tasks, and parent and examiner ratings of attention. Results Gestational age significantly predicted standardized language scores at age 11 years, but this effect was no longer statistically significant at age 12 years. When parent ratings of attention were considered as additional variables, gestational age was no longer a significant predictor. Gestational age did not serve as a significant predictor for the productive language measures at either time point. Discussion Results indicate that catch-up growth in language may take place in pre-adolescence for many children born prematurely. Clinical implications focus on the need to utilize multiple forms of language assessment and to directly consider the potential role of attention on standard test results.

Neural correlates of socioeconomic status in early childhood: a systematic review of the literature

It is now established that socioeconomic variables are associated with cognitive, academic achievement, and psychiatric outcomes. Recent years have shown the advance in our understanding of how socioeconomic status (SES) relates to brain development in the first years of life (ages 0-5 years). However, it remains unknown which neural structures and functions are most sensitive to the environmental experiences associated with SES. Pubmed, PsycInfo, and Google Scholar databases from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2019, were systematically searched using terms "Neural" OR "Neuroimaging" OR "Brain" OR "Brain development," AND "Socioeconomic" OR "SES" OR "Income" OR "Disadvantage" OR "Education," AND "Early childhood" OR "Early development". Nineteen studies were included in the full review after applying all exclusion criteria. Studies revealed associations between socioeconomic and neural measures and indicated that, in the first years of life, certain neural functions and structures (e.g., those implicated in language and executive function) may be more sensitive to socioeconomic context than others. Findings broadly support the hypothesis that SES associations with neural structure and function operate on a gradient. Socioeconomic status is reflected in neural architecture and function of very young children, as early as shortly after birth, with its effects possibly growing throughout early childhood as a result of postnatal experiences. Although socioeconomic associations with neural measures were relatively consistent across studies, results from this review are not conclusive enough to supply a neural phenotype of low SES. Further work is necessary to understand causal mechanisms underlying SES-brain associations.

Factors that increase risk for poor adherence to phenylketonuria treatment in Brazilian patients

Neurotoxic effects caused by high phenylalanine (Phe) in patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) can be avoided through dietary treatment. However, achieving the recommended Phe levels has been a challenge. This study aimed to investigate factors associated with adherence to PKU treatment among patients followed at a medical genetics public service in southern Brazil. Twenty-nine patients (early diagnosed, n = 20; late-diagnosed, n = 9) with classical (n = 16) or mild PKU (n = 13) aged 6-34 years (16.4 ± 7.5) and 16 caregivers were included. Blood Phe levels were recorded, and assessment tools measuring barriers to treatment, IQ, knowledge about disease, treatment, and perceived adherence were collected. Classical PKU patients showed higher current blood Phe levels than mild PKU patients (U = 37.000, p = 0.003). Lifetime and childhood Phe levels were associated with recent metabolic control (τ = 0.76, p = 0.000; τ = 0.70, p = 0.000, respectively). The perception of barriers to treatment was associated with a higher blood Phe level (τ = 0.39, p = 0.003). Tolerance to Phe, metabolic control throughout childhood, and perceived difficulty in living with demands of treatment are important factors of greater vulnerability to poor adherence in PKU patients.

Modeling familial predictors of proband outcomes in neurogenetic disorders: initial application in XYY syndrome

BACKGROUND

Disorders of gene dosage can significantly increase risk for psychopathology, but outcomes vary greatly amongst carriers of any given chromosomal aneuploidy or sub-chromosomal copy number variation (CNV). One potential path to advance precision medicine for neurogenetic disorders is modeling penetrance in probands relative to observed phenotypes in their non-carrier relatives. Here, we seek to advance this general analytic framework by developing new methods in application to XYY syndrome-a sex chromosome aneuploidy that is known to increase risk for psychopathology.

METHODS

We analyzed a range of cognitive and behavioral domains in XYY probands and their non-carrier family members (n = 58 families), including general cognitive ability (FSIQ), as well as continuous measures of traits related to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Proband and relative scores were compared using covariance, regression and cluster analysis. Comparisons were made both within and across traits.

RESULTS

Proband scores were shifted away from family scores with effect sizes varying between 0.9 and 2.4 across traits. Only FSIQ and vocabulary scores showed a significant positive correlation between probands and their non-carrier relatives across families (R² ~ 0.4). Variability in family FSIQ also cross-predicted variability in proband ASD trait severity. Cluster analysis across all trait-relative pairings revealed that variability in parental psychopathology was more weakly coupled to their XYY versus their euploid offspring.

CONCLUSIONS

We present a suite of generalizable methods for modeling variable penetrance in aneuploidy and CNV carriers using family data. These methods update estimates of phenotypic penetrance for XYY and suggest that the predictive utility of family data is likely to vary for different traits and different gene dosage disorders.

TRIAL REGISTRATIONS

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00001246 , "89-M-0006: Brain Imaging of Childhood Onset Psychiatric Disorders, Endocrine Disorders and Healthy Controls." Date of registry: 01 October 1989.

Identifying animal complex cognition requires natural complexity

The search for human cognitive uniqueness often relied on low ecological tests with subjects experiencing unnatural ontogeny. Recently, neuroscience demonstrated the significance of a rich environment on the development of brain structures and cognitive abilities. This stresses the importance to consider the prior knowledge that subjects bring in any experiment. Second, recent developments in multivariate statistics control precisely for a number of factors and their interactions. Making controls in natural observations equivalent and sometimes superior to captive experimental studies without the drawbacks of the latter methods. Thus, we can now investigate complex cognition by accounting for many different factors, as required when solving tasks in nature. Combining both progresses allows us to move toward an “experience-specific cognition”, recognizing that cognition varies extensively in nature as individuals adapt to the precise challenges they experience in life. Such cognitive specialization makes cross-species comparisons more complex, while potentially identifying human cognitive uniqueness.