Structural basis for negative regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha by CITED2

The hypoxia-inducible factor and tumor progression along the angiogenic pathway

The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a transcription factor that plays a key role in the response of cells to oxygen levels. HIF is a heterodimer of alpha- and beta-subunits where the alpha-subunit is translated constitutively but has a very short half-life under normal oxygen concentrations. Negative regulation of the half-life and activity of the alpha-subunit is dependent on its posttranslational hydroxylation by hydroxylases that are dependent on oxygen for activity. Thus under low oxygen (hypoxic) conditions the hydroxylases are inactive and the alpha-subunit is stable and able to interact with the beta-subunit to bind and induce transcription of target genes. Hypoxic conditions are encountered in development and in disease states such as cancer. Tumors that have outstripped their blood supply become hypoxic and express high levels of HIF. HIF in turn targets genes that induce survival, glycolysis, and angiogenesis, a form of neovascularization, which ensures the tumor with a continued supply of oxygen and nutrients for further growth.

Identification and functional analysis ofCITED2 mutations in patients with congenital heart defects

Recent reports have demonstrated that mice lacking the transcription factor Cited2 die in utero showing various cardiac malformations. We present for the first time functionally relevant mutations of CITED2 in patients with congenital heart defects (CHDs). CITED2 encodes a CREBBP/EP300 interacting transcriptional modulator of HIF1A and TFAP2. To study the potential impact of sequence variations in CITED2 for CHDs in humans, we screened a cohort of 392 well-characterized patients and 192 control individuals using DHPLC, sequencing, and Amplifluor genotyping techniques. We identified 15 CITED2 nucleotide alterations. Seven of these alterations were found only in CHD patients and were not detected in controls, including three mutations leading to alterations of the amino acid sequence (p.Ser170_Gly178del, p.Gly178_Ser179ins9, and p.Ser198_Gly199del). All three of these amino acid changing mutations cluster in the serine-glycine-rich junction of the protein, to which no functionality had heretofore been assigned. Here we show that these mutations significantly reduce the capacity of CITED2 to transrepress HIF1A, and that the p.Ser170_Gly178del mutation significantly diminishes TFAP2C coactivation. This reveals a modifying role for the serine-glycine-rich region in CITED2 function. In summary, the observation of these mutations in patients with septal defects indicates that CITED2 has a causative impact in the development of CHD in humans.

ZZ domain of CBP: an unusual zinc finger fold in a protein interaction module

CREB-binding protein (CBP) is a large, multi-domain protein that provides a multitude of binding sites for transcriptional coactivators. The site of interaction of the tumor suppressor p53 and the oncoprotein E1A with CBP/p300 has been identified with the third cysteine-histidine-rich (CH3) domain, which incorporates two zinc-binding motifs, ZZ and TAZ2. We show that these two domains fold independently and do not interact in solution. Our experiments demonstrate conclusively that the interaction of p53 and E1A with the CH3 domain resides exclusively in the TAZ2 domain, with no contribution from the ZZ domain. We report also the three-dimensional solution structure of the ZZ domain of murine CBP. The 52 residue ZZ domain contains two twisted antiparallel beta-sheets and a short alpha-helix, and binds two zinc ions. The identity of the zinc coordinating ligands was resolved unambiguously using NMR spectroscopy of the ZZ domain substituted with (113)Cd. One zinc ion is coordinated tetrahedrally via two CXXC motifs to four cysteine side-chains, and the second zinc ion is coordinated tetrahedrally by a third CXXC motif, together with an unusual HXH motif coordinating via the N(epsilon2) atom of His40 and the N(delta1) atom of His-42. The first zinc cluster of the ZZ domain is strictly conserved, whereas the second zinc cluster shows variability in the position of the two histidine residues, reflecting the wide variety of molecules that incorporate ZZ domains. The structure of the ZZ domain shows that it belongs to the family of cross-brace zinc finger motifs that include the PHD, RING, and FYVE domains; however, its biological function is unclear. Mapping of the positions of conserved residues onto the calculated structures reveals a face containing exposed aromatic and hydrophobic side-chains, while the opposite face contains a series of conserved charged or hydrophilic groups. These homologies suggest that the ZZ domain is involved in ligand binding or molecular scaffolding, with specificity provided by the variability of the sequence that contains the helix in the murine CPB ZZ domain structure.

The CBP/p300 TAZ1 domain in its native state is not a binding partner of MDM2

The transcriptional co-activator CBP [CREB (cAMP-response-element-binding protein)-binding protein] and its paralogue p300 play a key role in the regulation of both activity and stability of the tumour suppressor p53. Degradation of p53 is mediated by the ubiquitin ligase MDM2 (mouse double minute protein) and is also reported to be regulated by CBP/p300. Direct protein-protein interaction between a central domain of MDM2 and the TAZ1 (transcriptional adaptor zinc-binding domain) [C/H1 (cysteine/histidine-rich region 1)] domain of p300 and subsequent formation of a ternary complex including p53 have been reported previously. We expressed and purified the proposed binding domains of HDM2 (human homologue of MDM2) and CBP, and examined their interactions using CD spectroscopy. The binding studies were extended by using natively purified GST (glutathione S-transferase)-p300 TAZ1 and GST-p53 fusion proteins, together with in vitro translated HDM2 fragments, under similar solution conditions to those in previous studies, but omitting added EDTA, which causes unfolding and aggregation of the zinc-binding TAZ1 domain. Comparing the binding properties of the known TAZ1 interaction partners HIF-1alpha (hypoxia-inducible factor 1), CITED2 (CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with glutamic- and aspartic-rich tail) and STAT2 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 2) with HDM2, our data suggest that TAZ1 in its native state does not serve as a specific recognition domain of HDM2. Rather, unfolded TAZ1 and HDM2 proteins have a high tendency to aggregate, and non-specific protein complexes are formed under certain conditions.

Cited2 controls left-right patterning and heart development through a Nodal-Pitx2c pathway

Malformations of the septum, outflow tract and aortic arch are the most common congenital cardiovascular defects and occur in mice lacking Cited2, a transcriptional coactivator of TFAP2. Here we show that Cited2(-/-) mice also develop laterality defects, including right isomerism, abnormal cardiac looping and hyposplenia, which are suppressed on a mixed genetic background. Cited2(-/-) mice lack expression of the Nodal target genes Pitx2c, Nodal and Ebaf in the left lateral plate mesoderm, where they are required for establishing laterality and cardiovascular development. CITED2 and TFAP2 were detected at the Pitx2c promoter in embryonic hearts, and they activate Pitx2c transcription in transient transfection assays. We propose that an abnormal Nodal-Pitx2c pathway represents a unifying mechanism for the cardiovascular malformations observed in Cited2(-/-) mice, and that such malformations may be the sole manifestation of a laterality defect.

p300 relieves p53-evoked transcriptional repression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1)

HIF-1 (hypoxia-inducible factor-1), a heterodimeric transcription factor comprising HIF-1alpha and HIF-1beta subunits, serves as a key regulator of metabolic adaptation to hypoxia. HIF-1 activity largely increases during hypoxia by attenuating pVHL (von Hippel-Lindau protein)-dependent ubiquitination and subsequent 26 S-proteasomal degradation of HIF-1alpha. Besides HIF-1, the transcription factor and tumour suppressor p53 accumulates and is activated under conditions of prolonged/severe hypoxia. Recently, the interaction between p53 and HIF-1alpha was reported to evoke HIF-1alpha degradation. Destruction of HIF-1alpha by p53 was corroborated in the present study by using pVHL-deficient RCC4 (renal carcinoma) cells, supporting the notion of a pVHL-independent degradation process. In addition, low p53 expression repressed HIF-1 transactivation without affecting HIF-1alpha protein amount. Establishing that p53-evoked inhibition of HIF-1 reporter activity was relieved upon co-transfection of p300 suggested competition between p53 and HIF-1 for limiting amounts of the shared co-activator p300. This assumption was confirmed by showing competitive binding of in vitro transcription/translation-generated p53 and HIF-1alpha to the CH1 domain of p300 in vitro. We conclude that low p53 expression attenuates HIF-1 transactivation by competing for p300, whereas high p53 expression destroys the HIF-1alpha protein and thereby eliminates HIF-1 reporter activity. Thus once p53 becomes activated under conditions of severe hypoxia/anoxia, it contributes to terminating HIF-1 responses.

HIF-1: master and commander of the hypoxic world. A pharmacological approach to its regulation by siRNAs

The hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) is primarily involved in the sensing and adapting of cells to changes in the O2 level, which is essential for their viability. It is important that this critical transcription factor be tightly regulated in order for cells to respond to a wide range of O2 concentrations. HIF-1 regulation by post-translational modification is the central theme of the scenario of O2 homeostasis. The alpha subunit of HIF-1 is the principal actor while the supporting actors (PHDs, FIH-1, ARD1, CITED2, p300...) all contribute to the complexity of the grand finale. It is well established that HIF-1 expression and activation correlates with tumor progression and resistance to cancer treatments. We will introduce the different actors involved in HIF-1 regulation, and their mechanisms of action via invalidation by siRNAs and discuss therapies targeting HIF-1, to selectively kill tumor cells that adapt to low O2 concentrations.

CITED4 inhibits hypoxia-activated transcription in cancer cells, and its cytoplasmic location in breast cancer is associated with elevated expression of tumor cell hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha

The interaction of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha and the CH1 domain of the transcriptional coactivator p300/CBP is necessary for the expression of hypoxia responsive genes and tumor angiogenesis. The transcription factor CITED2 binds p300/CBP at the CH1 domain and functions as a negative regulator of hypoxia signaling by competing with hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha. CITED4, a recently identified member of the CITED family, binds p300/CBP via the CH1 domain and functions as a coactivator for transcription factor AP-2. Here, we show that CITED4 blocks the binding of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha to p300 in vitro and inhibits hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha transactivation and hypoxia-mediated reporter gene activation. These studies suggest that CITED4 might function as an inhibitor of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha. To explore the function of CITED4 in breast cancer, we determined its expression in normal, in situ and invasive breast cancers. We also correlated its expression in 286 invasive breast tumors with clinicopathological, hypoxia markers and survival. In contrast to the nuclear localization of CITED4 in normal breast tissue, breast tumors were characterized by cytoplasmic and nuclear localization. Nuclear CITED4 expression was significantly inversely associated with tumor hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (P < 0.05), tumor size (P = 0.03), tumor grade (P = 0.0001), and Chalkley vessel count (P = 0.04). CITED4 showed no significant correlation with patient age (P = 0.45), estrogen receptor (P = 0.11), or epidermal growth factor receptor (P = 0.48). These results show that breast cancer development is characterized by either nuclear loss or cytoplasmic translocation of CITED4, with consequent loss of hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha transcriptional antagonist activity. This may be an important mechanism by which tumors enhance hypoxia-inducible factor expression and result in an aggressive phenotype.

Small molecule blockade of transcriptional coactivation of the hypoxia-inducible factor pathway

Homeostasis under hypoxic conditions is maintained through a coordinated transcriptional response mediated by the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) pathway and requires coactivation by the CBP and p300 transcriptional coactivators. Through a target-based high-throughput screen, we identified chetomin as a disrupter of HIF binding to p300. At a molecular level, chetomin disrupts the structure of the CH1 domain of p300 and precludes its interaction with HIF, thereby attenuating hypoxia-inducible transcription. Systemic administration of chetomin inhibited hypoxia-inducible transcription within tumors and inhibited tumor growth. These results demonstrate a therapeutic window for pharmacological attenuation of HIF activity and further establish the feasibility of disrupting a signal transduction pathway by targeting the function of a transcriptional coactivator with a small molecule.

A Conserved alpha-helical motif mediates the binding of diverse nuclear proteins to the SRC1 interaction domain of CBP

CREB-binding protein (CBP) and p300 contain modular domains that mediate protein-protein interactions with a wide variety of nuclear factors. A C-terminal domain of CBP (referred to as the SID) is responsible for interaction with the alpha-helical AD1 domain of p160 coactivators such as the steroid receptor coactivator (SRC1), and also other transcriptional regulators such as E1A, Ets-2, IRF3, and p53. Here we show that the pointed (PNT) domain of Ets-2 mediates its interaction with the CBP SID, and describe the effects of mutations in the SID on binding of Ets-2, E1A, and SRC1. In vitro binding studies indicate that SRC1, Ets-2 and E1A display mutually exclusive binding to the CBP SID. Consistent with this, we observed negative cross-talk between ERalpha/SRC1, Ets-2, and E1A proteins in reporter assays in transiently transfected cells. Transcriptional inhibition of Ets-2 or GAL4-AD1 activity by E1A was rescued by co-transfection with a CBP expression plasmid, consistent with the hypothesis that the observed inhibition was due to competition for CBP in vivo. Sequence comparisons revealed that SID-binding proteins contain a leucine-rich motif similar to the alpha-helix Aalpha1 of the SRC1 AD1 domain. Deletion mutants of E1A and Ets-2 lacking the conserved motif were unable to bind the CBP SID. Moreover, a peptide corresponding to this sequence competed the binding of full-length SRC1, Ets-2, and E1A proteins to the CBP SID. Thus, a leucine-rich amphipathic alpha-helix mediates mutually exclusive interactions of functionally diverse nuclear proteins with CBP.

Interaction of the TAZ1 domain of the CREB-binding protein with the activation domain of CITED2: regulation by competition between intrinsically unstructured ligands for non-identical binding sites

The TAZ1 domain of the homologous transcriptional coactivators CREB-binding protein (CBP) and p300 forms a complex with CITED2 (CBP/p300-interacting transactivator with ED-rich tail), inhibiting the activity of the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF-1alpha) and thereby attenuating the cellular response to low tissue oxygen concentration. We report the NMR structure of the CBP TAZ1 domain bound to the activation domain of CIT-ED2. The structure of TAZ1, consisting of four alpha-helices (alpha(1)-alpha(4)) stabilized by three zinc atoms, is very similar in the CITED2 and HIF-1alpha complexes. The activation domain of CITED2 is unstructured when free and folds upon binding, forming a helix (termed alpha(A)) and an extended structure that wraps around TAZ1. The CITED2 alpha(A) helix packs in the TAZ1 alpha(1)/alpha(4) interface, a site that forms weak interactions with the poorly defined aminoterminal alpha-helix of HIF-1alpha. CITED2 and HIF-1alpha both contain a four residue motif, LP(E/Q)L, which binds in the TAZ1 alpha(1)/alpha(2)/alpha(3) junction in each complex. The carboxyl-terminal region of CITED2 forms an extended structure with hydrophobic contacts in the TAZ1 alpha(1)/alpha(3) interface in the site occupied by the HIF-1alpha alpha(B) helix. CITED2 does not bind at all to the TAZ1 site occupied by the HIF-1alpha carboxyl-terminal helix. The HIF-1alpha and CITED2 domains utilize partly overlapping surfaces of TAZ1 to achieve high affinity binding and to compete effectively with each other for interaction with CBP/p300; CITED2 and HIF-1alpha use these binding sites differently to maintain similar binding affinities in order to displace each other in a feedback loop during the hypoxic response.