Effectiveness of state trauma systems in reducing injury-related mortality: a national evaluation

An inventory of Canadian trauma systems: opportunities for improving access to trauma care

Objective:

Despite evidence that patients suffering major traumatic injuries have improved outcomes when cared for within an organized system, the extent of trauma system development in Canada is limited. We sought to compile a detailed inventory of trauma systems in Canada as a first step toward identifying opportunities for improving access to trauma care.

Methods:

We distributed a nationwide online and mail survey to stakeholders intended to evaluate the extent of implementation of specific trauma system components. Targeted stakeholders included emergency physicians, trauma surgeons, trauma program medical directors and program managers, prehospital providers, and decision makers at the regional and provincial levels. A “snowball” approach was used to expand the sample base of the survey. Descriptive statistics were generated to quantify the nature and extent of trauma system development by region.

Results:

The overall response rate was 38.7%, and all levels of stakeholders and all provinces/territories were represented. All provinces were found to have designated trauma centres; however, only 60% were found to have been accredited within the past 10 years. Components present in 50% or fewer provinces included an inclusive trauma system model, interfacility transfer agreements, and a mechanism to track bed availability within the system.

Conclusion:

There is significant variability in the extent of trauma system development in Canada. Although all provinces have designated trauma centres, opportunities exist in many systems to implement additional components to improve the inclusiveness of care. In future work, we intend to quantify the strength of the relationship between different trauma system components and access to definitive trauma care.

The contribution of the Israeli trauma system to the survival of road traffic casualties

BACKGROUND

According to the World Health Organization, over one million people die annually from traffic crashes, in which over half are pedestrians, bicycle riders and two-wheel motor vehicles. In Israel, during the last decade, mortality from traffic crashes has decreased from 636 in 1998 to 288 in 2011. Professionals attribute the decrease in mortality to enforcement, improved infrastructure and roads and behavioral changes among road users, while no credit is given to the trauma system. Trauma systems which care for severe and critical casualties improve the injury outcomes and reduce mortality among road casualties.

GOALS

1) To evaluate the contribution of the Israeli Health System, especially the trauma system, on the reduction in mortality among traffic casualties. 2) To evaluate the chance of survival among hospitalized traffic casualties, according to age, gender, injury severity and type of road user.

METHODS

A retrospective study based on the National Trauma Registry, 1998-2011, including hospitalization data from eight hospitals.

OUTCOMES

During the study period, the Trauma Registry included 262,947 hospitalized trauma patients, of which 25.3% were due to a road accident. During the study period, a 25% reduction in traffic related mortality was reported, from 3.6% in 1998 to 2.7% in 2011. Among severe and critical (ISS 16+) casualties the reduction in mortality rates was even more significant, 41%; from 18.6% in 1998 to 11.0% in 2011. Among severe and critical pedestrian injuries, a 44% decrease was reported (from 29.1% in 1998 to 16.2% in 2011) and a 65% reduction among bicycle injuries. During the study period, the risk of mortality decreased by over 50% from 1998 to 2011 (OR 0.44 95% 0.33-0.59. In addition, a simulation was conducted to determine the impact of the trauma system on mortality of hospitalized road casualties. Presuming that the mortality rate remained constant at 18.6% and without any improvement in the trauma system, in 2011 there would have been 182 in-hospital deaths compared to the actual 108 traffic related deaths. A 41% difference was noted between the actual number of deaths and the expected number.

CONCLUSIONS

This study clearly shows that without any improvement in the health system, specifically the trauma system, the number of traffic deaths would be considerably greater. Although the health system has a significant contribution on reducing mortality, it does not receive the appropriate acknowledgment or resources for its proportion in the fight against traffic accidents.

Predicting in-hospital death among patients injured in traffic crashes in Saudi Arabia

INTRODUCTION

Traffic-related injuries are a major cause of premature death in developing countries. Saudi Arabia has struggled with high rates of traffic-related deaths for decades, yet little is known about health outcomes of motor vehicle victims seeking medical care. This study aims to develop and validate a model to predict in-hospital death among patients admitted to a large-urban trauma centre in Saudi Arabia for treatment following traffic-related crashes.

METHODS

The analysis used data from King Abdulaziz Medical City (KAMC) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. During the study period 2001-2010, 5325 patients met the inclusion criteria of being injured in traffic crashes and seen in the Emergency Department (ED) and/or admitted to the hospital. Backward stepwise logistic regression, with in-hospital death as the outcome, was performed. Variables with p<0.05 were included in the final model. The Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) was employed to identify the most parsimonious model. Model discrimination was evaluated by the C-statistic and calibration by the Hosmer-Lemeshow Goodness of Fit statistic. Bootstrapping was used to assess overestimation of model performance and obtain a corrected C-statistic.

RESULTS

457 (8.5%) patients died at some time during their treatment in the ED or hospital. Older age, the Triage-Revised Trauma Scale (T-RTS), and Injury Severity Score were independent risk factors for in-hospital death: T-RTS was best modelled with linear and quadratic terms to capture a flattening of the relationship to death in the more severe range. The model showed excellent discrimination (C-statistic=0.96) and calibration (H-L statistic 4.29 [p>0.05]). Internal bootstrap validation gave similar results (C-statistic=0.96).

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed model can predict in-hospital death accurately. It can facilitate the triage process among injured patients, and identify unexpected deaths in order to address potential pitfalls in the care process. Conversely, by identifying high-risk patients, strategies can be developed to improve trauma care for these patients and reduce case-fatality. This is the first study to develop and validate a model to predict traffic-related mortality in a developing country. Future studies from developing countries can use this study as a reference for case fatality achievable for different risk profiles at a well-equipped trauma centre.

In-hospital mortality among patients injured in motor vehicle crashes in a Saudi Arabian hospital relative to large U.S. trauma centers

Background

Traffic-related fatalities are a leading cause of premature death worldwide. According to the 2012 report the Global Burden of Disease 2010, traffic injuries ranked 8th as a cause of death in 2010, compared to 10th in 1990. Saudi Arabia is estimated to have an overall traffic fatality rate more than double that of the U.S., but it is unknown whether mortality differences also exist for injured patients seeking medical care. We aim to compare in-hospital mortality between Saudi Arabia and the United States, adjusting for severity and demographic variables.

Methods

The analysis included 485,611 patients from the U.S. National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB) and 5,290 patients from a trauma registry at King Abdulaziz Medical City (KAMC) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. For comparability, we restricted our sample to NTDB data from level-I public trauma centers (≥400 beds) in the U.S. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of setting (KAMC vs. NTDB) on in-hospital mortality after adjusting for age, sex, Triage-Revised Scale (T-RTS), Injury Severity Score (ISS), mechanism of injury, hypotension, surgery and head injuries. Interactions between setting and ISS, and predictors were also evaluated.

Results

Injured patients in the Saudi registry were more likely to be males, and younger than those from the NTDB. Patients at the Saudi hospital were at higher risk of in-hospital death than their U.S. counterparts. In the highest severity group (ISSs, 25–75), the odds ratio of in-hospital death in KAMC versus NTDB was 5.0 (95% CI 4.3-5.8). There were no differences in mortality between KAMC and NTDB among patients from lower ISS groups (ISSs, 1–8, 9–15, and 16–24).

Conclusions

Patients who are severely injured following traffic crash injuries in Saudi Arabia are significantly more likely to die in the hospital than comparable patients admitted to large U.S. trauma centers. Further research is needed to identify reasons for this disparity and strategies for improving the care of patients severely injured in traffic crashes in Saudi Arabia.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40621-014-0021-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The cost of overtriage: more than one-third of low-risk injured patients were taken to major trauma centers

Regionalized trauma care has been widely implemented in the United States, with field triage by emergency medical services (EMS) playing an important role in identifying seriously injured patients for transport to major trauma centers. In this study we estimated hospital-level differences in the adjusted cost of acute care for injured patients transported by 94 EMS agencies to 122 hospitals in 7 regions, overall and by injury severity. Among 301,214 patients, the average adjusted per episode cost of care was $5,590 higher in a level 1 trauma center than in a nontrauma hospital. We found hospital-level differences in cost among patients with minor, moderate, and serious injuries. Of the 248,342 low-risk patients-those who did not meet field triage guidelines for transport to trauma centers-85,155 (34.3 percent) were still transported to major trauma centers, accounting for up to 40 percent of acute injury costs. Adhering to field triage guidelines that minimize the overtriage of low-risk injured patients to major trauma centers could save up to $136.7 million annually in the seven regions we studied.

Health and economic benefits of improved injury prevention and trauma care worldwide

Objectives

Injury is a significant source of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and often disproportionately affects younger, more productive members of society. While many have made the case for improved injury prevention and trauma care, health system development in low- and middle-income countries is often limited by resources. This study aims to determine the economic benefit of improved injury prevention and trauma care in low- and middle-income countries.

Methods

This study uses existing data on injury mortality worldwide from the 2010 Global Burden of Disease Study to estimate the number of lives that could be saved if injury mortality rates in low- and middle-income countries could be reduced to rates in high-income countries. Using economic modeling – through the human capital approach and the value of a statistical life approach – the study then demonstrates the associated economic benefit of these lives saved.

Results

88 percent of injury-related deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. If injury mortality rates in low- and middle-income countries were reduced to rates in high-income countries, 2,117,500 lives could be saved per year. This would result in between 49 million and 52 million disability adjusted life years averted per year, with discounting and age weighting. Using the human capital approach, the associated economic benefit of reducing mortality rates ranges from $245 to $261 billion with discounting and age weighting. Using the value of a statistical life approach, the benefit is between 758 and 786 billion dollars per year.

Conclusions

Reducing injury mortality in low- and middle-income countries could save over 2 million lives per year and provide significant economic benefit globally. Further investments in trauma care and injury prevention are needed.

Variation in prehospital use and uptake of the national Field Triage Decision Scheme

BACKGROUND

The Field Triage Decision Scheme is a national guideline that has been implemented widely for prehospital emergency medical services (EMS) and trauma systems. However, little is known about the uptake, modification, or variation in field application of triage criteria between trauma systems.

OBJECTIVE

To describe and compare the use of field triage criteria by EMS personnel in six regions, including the timing of guideline uptake and the use of nonguideline criteria.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study of injured children and adults transported by 48 EMS agencies to 105 hospitals (trauma centers and non-trauma centers) in six Western U.S. regions from 2006 through 2008. We used probabilistic linkage to match patient-level prehospital information from multiple sources, including EMS records, base-hospital phone communication records, and trauma registry data files. Triage criteria were evaluated individually and grouped by "steps" (physiologic, anatomic, mechanism, and special considerations). We used descriptive statistics to compare the frequency of triage criteria use (overall and between regions) and to evaluate the timing of guideline uptake across multiple versions of the guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 260,027 injured patients were evaluated and transported by EMS over the three-year study period, of whom 46,414 (18%) met at least one field triage criterion and formed the primary sample for analysis. The three most common criteria cited (of 33 in use) were EMS provider judgment (26%), age <5 or >55 years (10%), and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score <14 (9%). Of the 33 criteria in use, five (15%) were previously retired from the guidelines and seven (21%) were never included in the guidelines. 11,048 (24%) patients had more than one criterion applied (range 1-21). There was large variation in the type and frequency of criteria used between systems, particularly among the nonphysiologic triage steps. Only one of six regions had translated the most recent guidelines into field use within two years after release.

CONCLUSION

There is large variation between regions in the frequency and type of field triage criteria used. Field uptake of guideline revisions appears to be slow and variable, suggesting opportunities for improvement in dissemination and implementation of updated guidelines.

Utilisation of a Level 1 Trauma Centre in KwaZulu-Natal: appropriateness of referral determines trauma patient access

BACKGROUND

Appropriate referral of major trauma patients to an accredited Level 1 Trauma facility is associated with improved outcome. A new Level 1 Trauma Centre was opened at Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital in March 2007. This study sought to audit the referral pattern of external consults to the trauma unit and ascertain whether the unit was receiving appropriate referrals and has adequate capacity.

METHODS

An audit was performed of the referral proformas used in the unit to record admission decisions and of the computerised trauma database. The audit examined referral source (scene vs. interhospital), regional distribution, and final decision regarding admission of the injured patients. The study was approved by the UKZN Ethics Committee (BE207/09 and 011/010).

RESULTS

Of the 1,212 external consults, 540 were accepted for admission while the rest were not accepted for various reasons. These included 206 cases where no bed was available, 233 did not meet admission criteria (minor injury or futile situation), and 115 were for subspecialty management of a single-system injury. Finally, 115 were initially refused pending stabilisation for transfer at a regional facility. Twenty-six percent of the cases were referrals from the scene, with an acceptance rate of 96 %. Most patients (59 %) were from the local eThekwini region.

CONCLUSION

Major multiorgan system trauma remains a significant public health burden in KwaZulu-Natal. A Level 1 Trauma Service is used appropriately in most circumstances. However, the additional need for more hospital facilities that provide such services across the whole province to enable effective geographical coverage for those trauma patients requiring such specialised trauma care is essential.

Trends in maternal morbidity before and during pregnancy in California

OBJECTIVES

We examined trends in maternal comorbidities in California.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 1,551,017 California births using state-linked vital statistics and hospital discharge cohort data for 1999, 2002, and 2005. We used International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes to identify the following conditions, some of which were preexisting: maternal hypertension, diabetes, asthma, thyroid disorders, obesity, mental health conditions, substance abuse, and tobacco use. We estimated prevalence rates with hierarchical logistic regression models, adjusting for demographic shifts, and also examined racial/ethnic disparities.

RESULTS

The prevalence of these comorbidities increased over time for hospital admissions associated with childbirth, suggesting that pregnant women are getting sicker. Racial/ethnic disparities were also significant. In 2005, maternal hypertension affected more than 10% of all births to non-Hispanic Black mothers; maternal diabetes affected nearly 10% of births to Asian/Pacific Islander mothers (10% and 43% increases, respectively, since 1999). Chronic hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental health conditions, and tobacco use among Native American women showed the largest increases.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of maternal comorbidities before and during pregnancy has risen substantially in California and demonstrates racial/ethnic disparity independent of demographic shifts.

Establishing hospital-based trauma registry systems: lessons from Kenya

OBJECTIVE

In the developing world, data about the burden of injury, injury outcomes, and complications of care are limited. Hospital-based trauma registries are a data source that can help define this burden. Under the trauma care component of the Bloomberg Global Road Safety Partnership, trauma registries have been implemented at three sites in Kenya. We describe the challenges and lessons learned from this effort.

METHODS

A paper-based trauma surveillance form was developed, in collaboration with local hospital partners, to collect data on all trauma patients presenting for care. The form includes demographic information, pre-hospital care given, and patient care and clinical information necessary to calculate estimated injury surveillance. The type of data collected was standardized across all three sites. Frequent reviews of the data collection process, quality, and completeness, in addition to regular meetings and conference calls, have allowed us to optimize the process to improve efficiency and make corrective actions where required.

RESULTS

Trauma registries have been implemented in three hospitals in Kenya, with potential for expansion to other hospitals and facilities caring for injured patients. The process of establishing registries was associated with both general and site-specific challenges. Problems were identified in planning, data collection, entry processes, and analysis. Problems were addressed when identified, resulting in improved data quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Trauma registries are a key data source for defining the burden of injury and developing quality improvement processes. Trauma registries were implemented at three sites in Kenya. Problems and challenges in data collection were identified and corrected. Through the registry data, gaps in care were identified and systemic changes made to improve the care of the injured.

Reduction in trauma mortality in Israel during the last decade (2000-2010): the impact of changes in the trauma system

HYPOTHESIS

Following the introduction of changes to the trauma system there would be a period of time during which the impact on mortality would be minimal. A decrease in mortality rates would be noted as the TS matured and would continue over time.

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study of all severely injured patients (injury severity score ≥ 16) recorded in the Israeli National Trauma Registry at six level I trauma centres in Israel from 2000 to 2010. Inpatient death rates were examined overall and by sub groups.

SETTING

The National Trauma Registry contains hospitalized patients, transfer patients to or from other hospitals and those who died in the emergency department. It excludes patients who were dead on arrival, discharged following treatment in the emergency department, and patients whose injuries by definition are not classified as trauma.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

In-hospital mortality

RESULTS

Data included 23,143 severe trauma patients available for analysis. Inpatient mortality rates decreased significantly from 16% in 2000 to 11% in 2010. The odds ratio for mortality in 2010 vs. 2000, adjusted for year, age, sex, mechanism of injury, traumatic brain injury, penetrating injury, and severity of injury (ISS ≥ 25), was 0.53, confirming a downward trend.

CONCLUSIONS

A steady significant reduction in the inpatient mortality rate for severe trauma patients hospitalized at all level I trauma centres in Israel between 2000 and 2010 was observed. Although a single factor that explains the reduction was not identified, evidently the establishment of the trauma system brought about a significant decrease in hospital mortality. Integrated cooperation between components of the national trauma system in Israel over the years may explain the reduction.

Compliance to advanced trauma life support protocols in adult trauma patients in the acute setting

INTRODUCTION

Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) protocols provide a common approach for trauma resuscitations. This was a quality review assessing compliance with ATLS protocols at a Level I trauma center; specifically whether the presence or absence of a trauma team leader (TTL) influenced adherence.

METHODS

This retrospective study was conducted on adult major trauma patients with acute injuries over a one-year period in a Level I Canadian trauma center. Data were collected from the Alberta Trauma Registry, and adherence to ATLS protocols was determined by chart review.

RESULTS

The study identified 508 patients with a mean Injury Severity Score of 24.5 (SD 10.7), mean age 39.7 (SD 17.6), 73.8% were male and 91.9% were involved in blunt trauma. The overall compliance rate was 81.8% for primary survey and 75% for secondary survey. The TTL group compared to non-TTL group was more likely to complete the primary survey (90.9% vs. 81.8%, p = 0.003), and the secondary survey (100% vs. 75%, p = 0.004). The TTL group was more likely than the non-TTL group to complete the following tasks: insertion of two large bore IVs (68.2% vs. 57.7%, p = 0.014), digital rectal exam (64.6% vs. 54.7%, p = 0.023), and head to toe exam (77% vs. 67.1%, p = 0.013). Mean times from emergency department arrival to diagnostic imaging were also significantly shorter in the TTL group compared to the non-TTL group, including times to pelvis xray (mean 68min vs. 107min, p = 0.007), CT chest (mean 133min vs. 172min, p = 0.005), and CT abdomen and pelvis (mean 136min vs. 173min, p = 0.013). Readmission rates were not significantly different between the TTL and non-TTL groups (3.5% vs. 4.5%, p = 0.642).

CONCLUSIONS

While many studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of trauma systems on outcomes, few have explored the direct influence of the TTL on ATLS compliance. This study demonstrated that TTL involvement during resuscitations was associated with improved adherence to ATLS protocols, and increased efficiency (compared to non TTL involvement) to diagnostic imaging. Findings from this study will guide future quality improvement and education for early trauma management.

Impact of introducing a major trauma network on a regional helicopter emergency medicine service in the UK

INTRODUCTION

In the West Midlands region of the UK, the delivery of prehospital trauma care has recently been remodelled through the introduction of a regionalised major trauma network (MTN). Helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) are integral to the network, providing means of delivering highly skilled specialist teams to scenes of trauma and rapid transfer of patients to major trauma centres. This study reviews the impact of introducing the West Midlands MTN on the operation of one its regional HEMS units.

METHODS

Retrospective review of the Midlands Air Ambulance clinical database for the 6 months after the launch of the West Midlands MTN. The corresponding period for the previous year was reviewed for comparison. The contribution of trauma cases to overall workload, mission outcome data and the number of interventions performed at the scene were compared.

RESULTS

The proportion of HEMS activations for trauma cases was similar in both cohorts (70.84% before MTN vs 71.57% after MTN). The proportion of mission cancellations was significantly lower after the launch of the network (23.71% vs 19.03%). Significantly more scene attendances resulted in interventions by HEMS crews after the MTN launch (44.66% vs 56.92%).

CONCLUSIONS

Since the introduction of the West Midlands MTN, tasking of HEMS assets appears to be better targeted to cases involving significant injury, and a reduction in mission cancellations has been observed. There is a need for more detailed evaluation of patient outcomes to identify strategies for optimising the utilisation of HEMS assets within the regional network.

Outcomes of different health care contexts for direct transport to a trauma center versus initial secondary center care: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Within a trauma system, pre-hospital care is the first step in managing the trauma patient. Timely and appropriate transport of the injured patient to the most appropriate facility is important. Many trauma systems mandate that serious trauma cases are transported directly to a level I trauma center unless transfer to a closer hospital is deemed necessary to resuscitate and stabilize the patient prior to onward transfer to definitive care. Statistical and clinical heterogeneity is often high and is likely to be influenced by the heath care context.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to compare patient outcomes for patients with serious trauma transported directly to a Level I/II trauma center ('direct' group) to those transported to a healthcare facility before transfer to the Level I/ II trauma center ('transfer' group). A search of bibliographic databases and secondary sources that focus on trauma was made. Studies were grouped by region: United States of America, Canada, Europe, Asia, Australia and New Zealand and South Africa.

RESULTS

The review included 43,554 patients from the 30 studies that met the selection criteria. Heterogeneity of the studies was high (I(2) 71%) overall but low for European, Asian, and Australian and New Zealand studies. There was considerable variation between studies in the structure, policies and practices of the respective trauma systems. The effect of "directness" on patient outcomes was inconsistent.

CONCLUSION

The current research evidence does not support nor refute a position that all serious trauma patients be routinely transported directly to a level I/II trauma center. As this is a complex issue, local health-care context and injury profile influence trauma policy and practice.

The initial management of trauma patients is an especially relevant setting to evaluate professional practice patterns

The initial management of trauma patients in a dedicated location is a crucial step in the treatment of these patients. The characteristics of this phase are such that they meet all the criteria for a professional practice patterns evaluation (PPPE or PPE): formalized protocols, clear-cut timeframes, specific roles of different stakeholders, and multidisciplinary medical and paramedical team. In addition, the expected result of the PPE approach, improved care, will have a direct impact on patient outcomes. This PPE modeled on an audit aims at evaluating the care process based on representative criteria. These criteria should include: the planned structure and organization; the protocols; the strategy and time frames for procedure implementation; the relationships between stakeholders; the results. For each criterion, differences between the expected characteristics and the observed reality are analyzed. The prospective (independent observer or video) and/or retrospective (records, register) collection of data during 20 consecutive encounters should be sufficient to identify dysfunctions and provide guidance on the changes that need to be implemented. The proposed data collection form includes 15 items representative of the five defined criteria. These items often describe departmental choice. The pursuit of quality is defined first in terms of medical and paramedical results, but also in administrative and financial terms. Following the analysis produced by a representative group of actors, a multidisciplinary discussion of the results should be followed by proposals for simple changes approved by everyone. After a few months of implementation, the impact of the proposed improvement measures will be assessed by a new survey. This approach, in addition to improving the quality of care, allows better team stress management and greater work enjoyment.

Helicopter emergency medical services for adults with major trauma

BACKGROUND

Although helicopters are presently an integral part of trauma systems in most developed nations, previous reviews and studies to date have raised questions about which groups of traumatically injured patients derive the greatest benefit.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this review is to determine if helicopter emergency medical services transport (HEMS) is associated with improved morbidity and mortality, compared to ground emergency medical services transport (GEMS), for adults with major trauma. The primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge. Secondary outcomes were quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs).

SEARCH METHODS

Searches were run in CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL (EBSCOhost), SCI-EXPANDED, CPCI-S, and ZETOC in January 2012. Relevant websites were also searched, including controlled trials registers, HSRProj, the World Health Organization (WHO) ICTRP, and OpenSIGLE. Searches were not restricted by date, language, or publication status. Attempts were made to contact authors in the case of missing data.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Eligible trials included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomised intervention studies. Non-randomised studies (NRS), including controlled trials and cohort studies, were also evaluated. Each study was required to have a GEMS comparison group. An injury severity score (ISS) > 15 or an equivalent marker for injury severity was required. Only adults aged 16 years or older were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Three review authors independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias of included studies. The Downs and Black quality assessment tool was applied for NRS. The results were analysed in a narrative review, and with studies grouped by methodology and injury type. A predefined subgroup was comprised of four additional studies that examined the role of HEMS versus GEMS for inter-facility transfer. Summary of findings tables were constructed in accordance with the GRADE Working Group criteria.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty-five studies met the entry criteria for this review. Four additional studies met the criteria for a separate, predefined subgroup analysis of patients transferred to trauma centres by HEMS or GEMS. All studies were non-randomised studies; no RCTs were found. Survival at hospital discharge was the primary outcome. Data from 163,748 people from 21 of the 25 studies included in the primary analysis were available to calculate unadjusted mortality. Overall, considerable heterogeneity was observed and an accurate estimate of overall effect could not be determined. Based on the unadjusted mortality data from five trials that focused on traumatic brain injury, there was no decreased risk of death with HEMS (relative risk (RR) 1.02; 95% CI 0.85 to 1.23). Nine studies used multivariate regression to adjust for confounding, the five largest indicated a statistically significant increased odds of survival associated with HEMS. All Trauma-Related Injury Severity Score (TRISS)-based studies indicated improved survival in the HEMS group as compared to the Major Trauma Outcomes Study (MTOS) cohort; some studies showed survival benefits in both the HEMS and GEMS groups as compared to MTOS. No studies were found to evaluate the secondary outcome of morbidity as assessed by QALYs and DALYs. All four studies suggested a positive benefit when HEMS was used to transfer patients to higher level trauma centres. Overall, the quality of the included studies was very low as assessed by the GRADE Working Group criteria.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Due to the methodological weakness of the available literature, and the considerable heterogeneity of effects and study methodologies, an accurate composite estimate of the benefit of HEMS could not be determined. Although five of the nine multivariate regression studies indicated improved survival associated with HEMS, the remainder did not. All were subject to a low quality of evidence as assessed by the GRADE Working Group criteria due to their non-randomised design. Similarly, TRISS-based studies, which all demonstrated improved survival, cannot be considered strong evidence because of their methodology, which did not randomize the use of HEMS. The question of which elements of HEMS may be beneficial for patients has not been fully answered. The results from this review provide motivation for future work in this area. This includes an ongoing need for diligent reporting of research methods, which is imperative for transparency and to maximise the potential utility of results. Large, multicentre studies are warranted as these will help produce more robust estimates of treatment effects. Future work in this area should also examine the costs and safety of HEMS, since multiple contextual determinants must be considered when evaluating the effects of HEMS for adults with major trauma.

Impact of trauma system development on pediatric injury care

PURPOSE

Trauma systems improve survival by directing severely injured patients to trauma centers. This study analyzes the impact of trauma systems on pediatric triage and injury mortality rates.

METHODS

Population-based data were collected on injured children less than 15 years who were admitted to any hospital in New England from 1996 to 2006. Data from three trauma system states were compared to three non-trauma system states. The percentages of injured children, severely injured children, and brain-injured children admitted to trauma centers were determined as well as injury hospitalization and death rates. Time trend analysis examined the pace of change between the groups.

RESULTS

A total of 58,583 injured children were hospitalized during the study period. Injury hospitalization rates were initially similar between the two groups (with and without trauma systems) and decreased over time in both. Rates decreased more rapidly in trauma system states compared to those without, (P = 0.003). Injury death rates decreased over time in both groups with no difference between the groups, (P = 0.20). A higher percentage of injured children were admitted to trauma centers in non-trauma system states throughout the study period, and this percentage increased in both groups of states. A higher percentage of severely injured children and brain-injured children were admitted to trauma centers in non-trauma system states and both percentages increased over time. The increase was more rapid in trauma system states for children with severe injuries (P < 0.001) and children with brain injuries (P < 0.001).

DISCUSSION

Trauma systems decreased childhood injury hospitalization rates and increased the percentage of severely injured children and brain-injured children admitted to trauma centers. Mortality and overall triage rates were unaffected.

Paediatric and adolescent trauma care within an integrated trauma system

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to establish the profile and outcomes of paediatric major trauma care (PTMC) within an integrated inclusive regionalised trauma system.

METHODS

Prospectively collected data from July 2001 to June 2009 from the Victorian State Trauma Registry of patients aged <18 years were reviewed.

RESULTS

There were 1634 major trauma cases with a median (IQR) age of 13 (6-16) years and 69% were male. The median ISS (IQR) was 18 (16-26). There were 1361 patients treated at a major trauma centre of which 69% (n=943) were treated at the PMTC. Head injury (AIS>2) was the most frequent injury (n=950, 58%). Surgery was required in 39% (n=637) of all cases; 437 patients in the 10-17 year old group and 200 patients in the 0-9 year old group; the mortality was 6.6%. There were 530 patients (32.4%) ventilated in ICU; these had a median ISS (IQR) of 25 (17-34) and mortality of 7.4%. Improvements in risk-adjusted mortality have occurred as the years have progressed [adjusted OR 95% CI: 0.87 (0.76, 0.99)] and being treated at a Level 1 trauma centre was associated with lower adjusted odds of mortality [adjusted OR 95% CI: 0.27 (0.11, 0.68)].

CONCLUSION

The establishment of this integrated inclusive regionalised trauma system has been associated with progressively improving risk-adjusted mortality. The relatively low volume of major trauma requiring surgery in the 0-9 year old age group is notable, creating a challenging environment for maintaining skills and institutional preparedness.

Comparing Methodologies for Evaluating Emergency Medical Services Ground Transport Access to Time-critical Emergency Services: A Case Study Using Trauma Center Care

OBJECTIVES

The regionalization of medical services has resulted in improved outcomes and greater compliance with existing guidelines. For certain "time-critical" conditions intimately associated with emergency medicine, early intervention has demonstrated mortality benefits. For these conditions, then, appropriate triage within a regionalized system at first diagnosis is paramount, ideally occurring in the field by emergency medical services (EMS) personnel. Therefore, EMS ground transport access is an important metric in the ongoing evaluation of a regionalized care system for time-critical emergency services. To our knowledge, no studies have demonstrated how methodologies for calculating EMS ground transport access differ in their estimates of access over the same study area for the same resource. This study uses two methodologies to calculate EMS ground transport access to trauma center care in a single study area to explore their manifestations and critically evaluate the differences between the methodologies.

METHODS

Two methodologies were compared in their estimations of EMS ground transport access to trauma center care: a routing methodology (RM) and an as-the-crow-flies methodology (ACFM). These methodologies were adaptations of the only two methodologies that had been previously used in the literature to calculate EMS ground transport access to time-critical emergency services across the United States. The RM and ACFM were applied to the nine Level I and Level II trauma centers within the province of Ontario by creating trauma center catchment areas at 30, 45, 60, and 120 minutes and calculating the population and area encompassed by the catchments. Because the methodologies were identical for measuring air access, this study looks specifically at EMS ground transport access.

RESULTS

Catchments for the province were created for each methodology at each time interval, and their populations and areas were significantly different at all time periods. Specifically, the RM calculated significantly larger populations at every time interval while the ACFM calculated larger catchment area sizes. This trend is counterintuitive (i.e., larger catchment should mean higher populations), and it was found to be most disparate at the shortest time intervals (under 60 minutes). Through critical evaluation of the differences, the authors elucidated that the ACFM could calculate road access in areas with no roads and overestimates access in low-density areas compared to the RM, potentially affecting delivery of care decisions.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these results, the authors believe that future methodologies for calculating EMS ground transport access must incorporate a continuous and valid route through the road network as well as use travel speeds appropriate to the road segments traveled; alternatively, we feel that variation in methods for calculating road distances would have little effect on realized access. Overall, as more complex models for calculating EMS ground transport access become used, there needs to be a standard methodology to improve and to compare it to. Based on these findings, the authors believe that this should be the RM.

Outcomes of trauma patients: direct transport versus transfer after stabilisation at another hospital

BACKGROUND

In this study, we attempted to identify differences in the outcomes of patients with severe trauma who were directly transported to our hospital, and those who were stabilised initially at other hospitals in south-central Taiwan.

METHODS

We performed a prospective observational study to review the records of 231 patients with major trauma (Injury Severity Scores (ISS) >15) who visited our hospital's emergency department from January 2010 to December 2010. Among these patients, 75 were referred from other hospitals. Logistic regression was performed to assess the effects of transfer on mortality.

RESULTS

Patients in the transfer group had a shorter interval between trauma and admission to the first hospital (25.3 min vs. 28.1 min), and the average interval between the two hospital arrivals was 138.3 min. Transfer from another hospital was not significantly correlated with mortality in this study (odds ratio: 1.124, 95% confidence interval: 0.276-4.578).

CONCLUSION

In trauma patients with ISS>15, there is no difference in mortality between those transferred from another hospital after initial stabilisation and those who visited our emergency department directly.

Differences in treatment of digital amputation injuries based on community transfer versus tertiary initial presentation

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this paper is to compare a group of patients with upper extremity amputation injuries who presented to a tertiary referral center without having been previously seen at another hospital versus a group of patients who was transferred from another facility. We hypothesize that transferred patients will generally undergo more complex treatments, that some transferred patients will be treated in the ER with simple treatments (thereby perhaps not requiring transfer), and that transferred patients will be less likely to have insurance coverage.

METHODS

All patients who presented to our ER from January 1, 2007 to December 31, 2008 with the classification of hand and finger amputation were included. Data collected included whether or not the patient was transferred from another institution, age, mechanism of injury, partial versus total amputation, location treated, transportation method, general treatment classification, type of insurance, and month of presentation.

RESULTS

No statistical difference was found between patients who were transferred versus those who were not with respect to age, sex, mechanism, whether the amputation was partial versus complete, or insurance coverage. Statistical differences were noted between the subset of patients who was transferred versus those who were not with respect to treatment location, method of transportation, and treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients transferred to our institution required significantly more complex treatments and were significantly more likely to be treated in the operating room. A small but significant group of patients was treated in the ER or required relatively simple treatments after transfer. Our hypothesis that a higher percentage of patients transferred to our institution would have less insurance coverage was not supported by the data. Tertiary centers can expect to continue receiving a steady stream of amputation referrals.

Increased population density of neurosurgeons associated with decreased risk of death from motor vehicle accidents in the United States

Object

Motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) are a leading cause of death and disability in young people. Given that a major cause of death from MVAs is traumatic brain injury, and neurosurgeons hold special expertise in this area relative to other members of a trauma team, the authors hypothesized that neurosurgeon population density would be related to reduced mortality from MVAs across US counties.

Methods

The Area Resource File (2009–2010), a national health resource information database, was retrospectively analyzed. The primary outcome variable was the 3-year (2004–2006) average in MVA deaths per million population for each county. The primary independent variable was the density of neurosurgeons per million population in the year 2006. Multiple regression analysis was performed, adjusting for population density of general practitioners, urbanicity of the county, and socioeconomic status of the county.

Results

The median number of annual MVA deaths per million population, in the 3141 counties analyzed, was 226 (interquartile range [IQR] 151–323). The median number of neurosurgeons per million population was 0 (IQR 0–0), while the median number of general practitioners per million population was 274 (IQR 175–410). Using an unadjusted analysis, each increase of 1 neurosurgeon per million population was associated with 1.90 fewer MVA deaths per million population (p < 0.001). On multivariate adjusted analysis, each increase of 1 neurosurgeon per million population was associated with 1.01 fewer MVA deaths per million population (p < 0.001), with a respective decrease in MVA deaths of 0.03 per million population for an increase in 1 general practitioner (p = 0.007). Rural location, persistent poverty, and low educational level were all associated with significant increases in the rate of MVA deaths.

Conclusions

A higher population density of neurosurgeons is associated with a significant reduction in deaths from MVAs, a major cause of death nationally. This suggests that the availability of local neurosurgeons is an important factor in the overall likelihood of survival from an MVA, and therefore indicates the importance of promoting neurosurgical education and practice throughout the country.

The impact of distance on triage to trauma center care in an urban trauma system

BACKGROUND

Urban trauma systems are characterized by high population density, availability of trauma centers, and acceptable road transport times (within 30 minutes). In such systems, patients meeting field trauma triage (FTT) criteria should be transported directly to a trauma center, bypassing closer non-trauma centers.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated emergency medical services (EMS) triage practices to identify opportunities for improving care delivery.

OBJECTIVE

Specifically, we evaluated the effect of the additional distance to a trauma center, compared with a closer non-trauma center, on the noncompliance with trauma destination criteria by EMS personnel in an urban environment.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study of adults having at least one physiologic derangement and meeting Toronto EMS field trauma triage criteria from 2005 to 2010. Road travel distances between the site of injury, the closest non-trauma center, and the closest trauma center were estimated using geographic information systems. For patients who were transported to non-trauma centers, we estimated "differential distance": the additional travel distance required to transport directly to a trauma center. Logistic regression was used to analyze the effect of differential distance on triage decisions, adjusting for other patient characteristics.

RESULTS

Inclusion criteria identified 898 patients; 53% were transported directly to a trauma center. Falls, female gender, and age greater than 65 years were associated with transport to non-trauma centers. Differential distances greater than 1 mile were associated with a decreased likelihood of triage to a trauma center.

CONCLUSION

Differential distance between the closest non-trauma center and the closest trauma center was associated with lower compliance with triage protocols, even in an urban setting where trauma centers can be accessed within approximately 30 minutes. Our findings suggest that there are opportunities for reducing the gap between ideal and actual application of field trauma triage guidelines through a process of education and feedback.

Trauma care in Africa: a status report from Botswana, guided by the World Health Organization's "Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care"

BACKGROUND

Trauma represents a significant and increasing challenge to health care systems all over the world. This study aimed to evaluate the trauma care capabilities of Botswana, a middle-income African country, by applying the World Health Organization's Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care.

METHODS

All 27 government (16 primary, 9 district, 2 referral) hospitals were surveyed. A questionnaire and checklist, based on "Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care" and locally adapted, were developed as situation analysis tools. The questionnaire assessed local trauma organization, capacity, and the presence of quality improvement activity. The checklist assessed physical availability of equipment and timely availability of trauma-related skills. Information was collected by interviews with hospital administrators, key personnel within trauma care, and through on-site physical inspection.

RESULTS

Hospitals in Botswana are reasonably well supplied with human and physical resources for trauma care, although deficiencies were noted. At the primary and district levels, both capacity and equipment for airway/breathing management and vascular access was limited. Trauma administrative functions were largely absent at all levels. No hospital in Botswana had any plans for trauma education, separate from or incorporated into other improvement activities. Team organization was nonexistent, and training activities in the emergency room were limited.

CONCLUSIONS

This study draws a picture of trauma care capabilities of an entire African country. Despite good organizational structures, Botswana has room for substantial improvement. Administrative functions, training, and human and physical resources could be improved. By applying the guidelines, this study creates an objective foundation for improved trauma care in Botswana.

Compliance with Centers for Disease Control and Prevention field triage guidelines in an established trauma system

BACKGROUND

Regionalization of trauma care reduces mortality and has clear guidelines for transport to the highest level of trauma care. Whether prehospital providers follow the CDC triage algorithm remains to be determined.

STUDY DESIGN

We performed a 5-year retrospective cohort analysis of linked data from Washington State's Central Region Trauma Registry (CRTR) and King County Emergency Medical Services (KCEMS). Patients were analyzed based on transport to their designated hospital, as determined by geocode mapping, or directly to the level I center (no level II center is available in this region).

RESULTS

Of the 12,106 patients in the study, 5,976 (49.4%) were transported directly to a level I center from the scene. Of the remaining 6,130 patients initially transported to level III to V centers, 5,024 (41.5%) remained in the respective level III to V centers and 1,106 (9.1%) were transferred to the level I center. Patients transported directly to a level I center were more likely to be male, younger, have a penetrating injury, lower scene Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), lower scene blood pressure, and be more severely injured. Level I direct scene transport was significantly less likely for older patients. Compared with patients ages 18 to 45, the adjusted odds ratio for direct transport to the level I center was 0.7 (95% CI 0.59 to 0.83) for patients aged 46 to 55 years; 0.47 (95% CI 0.39 to 0.57) for those 56 to 65 years; 0.28 (95% CI 0.23 to 0.34) for patients 66 to 80 years; and 0.11 (95% CI 0.09 to 0.14) for those older than 81 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Prehospital providers follow physiologic, anatomic, and mechanistic parameters in steps 1 to 3 of the CDC field triage guidelines. However, contrary to the special considerations guideline in step 4, older age was associated with transport to the lower level of trauma care in our region.

Do inclusive trauma systems improve outcomes after renal trauma?

BACKGROUND

Our aim is to assess state variation in renal trauma outcomes. We hypothesize that states with more hospitals participating in a trauma system will have lower nephrectomy and mortality rates.

METHODS

The Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project State Inpatient Database was used to conduct a retrospective cohort study of all patients hospitalized with renal injury from partnering states during 2001, 2004, and 2007. State trauma systems were categorized based on the proportion of all acute care hospitals designated as a trauma center (Levels I-V) with higher proportions correlating to a more inclusive system. Poisson regression for relative risks (RRs) of inpatient nephrectomy and case fatality were performed adjusting for patient and state level factors.

RESULTS

Patients in states with the "most inclusive" trauma systems had a 30% lower risk of nephrectomy (RR, 0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.56-0.88) and a 2.06% lower unadjusted inpatient case fatality rate compared with states with "exclusive" trauma systems. Inpatient case fatality risk varied significantly by trauma system inclusiveness. Patients treated in states with either a "more inclusive" (RR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.74-0.97) or "most inclusive" (RR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.64-0.85) trauma system were independently associated with a lower inpatient case fatality risk compared with states with "exclusive" systems.

CONCLUSIONS

A reduced risk of nephrectomy and inpatient case fatality are more common among states that have a higher proportion of acute care hospitals participating as a trauma center (Levels I-V). Standardization of care may correlate with improved patient outcomes after renal trauma.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II, exploratory cohort analysis.

An estimate of the number of lives that could be saved through improvements in trauma care globally

BACKGROUND

Reducing the global burden of injury requires both injury prevention and improved trauma care. We sought to provide an estimate of the number of lives that could be saved by improvements in trauma care, especially in low income and middle income countries.

METHODS

Prior data showed differences in case fatality rates for seriously injured persons (Injury Severity Score ≥ 9) in three separate locations: Seattle, WA (high income; case fatality 35%); Monterrey, Mexico (middle income; case fatality 55%); and Kumasi, Ghana (low income; case fatality 63%). For the present study, total numbers of injury deaths in all countries in different economic strata were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease study. The number of lives that could potentially be saved from improvements in trauma care globally was calculated as the difference in current number of deaths from trauma in low income and middle income countries minus the number of deaths that would have occurred if case fatality rates in these locations were decreased to the case fatality rate in high income countries.

RESULTS

Between 1,730,000 and 1,965,000 lives could be saved in low income and middle income countries if case fatality rates among seriously injured persons could be reduced to those in high income countries. This amounts to 34-38% of all injury deaths.

CONCLUSIONS

A significant number of lives could be saved by improvements in trauma care globally. This is another piece of evidence in support of investment in and greater attention to strengthening trauma care services globally.

Influence of a province-wide trauma system on motor vehicle collision process of trauma care and mortality: a 10-year follow-up evaluation

BACKGROUND

Mature trauma systems have evolved to respond to major injury-related morbidity and mortality. Studies of mature trauma systems have demonstrated improved survival, especially among seriously injured patients. From 1995 to 1998, a province-wide trauma system was implemented in the province of Nova Scotia. We measured the proportion of admissions to a tertiary level trauma centre and the proportion of in-hospital deaths among patients with major injuries as a result of a motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) before and 10 years after provincial trauma systems implementation.

METHODS

We identified major trauma patients aged 16 years and older using external cause of injury codes pertaining to MVCs from population-based hospital claims and vital statistics data. Individuals who were admitted to hospital or died because of an MVC in 1993-1994 (preimplementation), were compared with those who were admitted to hospital or died in 2003-2005 (postimplementation).

RESULTS

Postimplementation, there was a 9% increase in the number of seriously injured individuals with primary admission to tertiary care. This increase was statistically significant even after we adjusted for age, head injury and municipality of residence (relative risk [RR] 1.09, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04-1.14). The probability of dying while in hospital in the postimplementation period decreased by 29% (adjusted RR 0.57, 95% CI 0.32-1.03), although this difference was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Individuals seriously injured in MVCs in Nova Scotia were more likely to be admitted to tertiary care after the implementation of a province-wide trauma system. There was a trend toward decreased mortality, but further research is warranted to confirm the survival benefit and delineate other contributing factors.

World Health Assembly Resolution 60.22 and its importance as a health care policy tool for improving emergency care access and availability globally

The recent adoption of World Health Assembly Resolution 60.22, titled "Health Systems: Emergency Care Systems," has established an important health care policy tool for improving emergency care access and availability globally. The resolution highlights the role that strengthened emergency care systems can play in reducing the increasing burden of disease from acute illness and injury in populations across the socioeconomic spectrum and calls on governments and the World Health Organization to take specific and concrete actions to make this happen. This resolution constitutes recognition by the World Health Assembly of the growing public health role of emergency care systems and is the highest level of international attention ever devoted to emergency care systems worldwide. Emergency care systems for secondary prevention of acute illnesses and injury remain inadequately developed in many low- and middle-income countries, despite evidence that basic strategies for improving emergency care systems can reduce preventable mortality and morbidity and can in many cases also be cost-effective. Emergency care providers and their professional organizations have used their comprehensive expertise to strengthen emergency care systems worldwide through the development of tools for emergency medicine education, systems assessment, quality improvement, and evidence-based clinical practice. World Health Assembly 60.22 represents a unique opportunity for emergency care providers and other advocates for improved emergency care to engage with national and local health care officials and policymakers, as well as with the World Health Organization, and leverage the expertise within the international emergency medicine community to make substantial improvements in emergency care delivery in places where it is most needed.

Change of inter-facility transfer pattern in a regional trauma system after designation of trauma centers

Purpose

The Ministry of Health and Welfare recently designated 35 major trauma-specified centers (MTSC). The purpose of this study is to determine changes in patient flow and designated hospitals, and to describe the role of the emergency medical information center (EMIC) in a regional trauma care system.

Methods

Data of trauma patient inter-facility transfer arrangement by one EMIC were reviewed for 2 months before and after the designation of MTSC. The data included success or failure rates of the arrangement, time used for arrangement, and inquiring and accepting facility.

Results

At pre- and post-designation study period, there were 540 and 433 trauma patient inter-facility transfers arranged by EMIC, respectively. The median time used for arrangement decreased from 9.3 to 7.7 minutes (P = 0.007). Arrangement failure rate was 3.5% and 2.5%, respectively, with no significant interval change (P = 0.377). The percentage of inquiring MTSC decreased from 49.1 to 36.9% (P < 0.001). The percentage of accepting MTSC increased from 20.2 to 37.4% (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

With the designation of MTSC, EMIC could arrange inter-facility transfers more quickly. The hospitals wanted more trauma patients after the designation. There would be a concentration of trauma patients to MTSCs in our region. Further studies are needed for scientific evidence on patient outcome.

A multisite assessment of the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma field triage decision scheme for identifying seriously injured children and adults

BACKGROUND

The American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma (ACSCOT) has developed and updated field trauma triage protocols for decades, yet the ability to identify major trauma patients remains unclear. We estimate the diagnostic value of the Field Triage Decision Scheme for identifying major trauma patients (Injury Severity Score [ISS] ≥ 16) in a large and diverse multisite cohort.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective cohort study of injured children and adults transported by 94 emergency medical services (EMS) agencies to 122 hospitals in 7 regions of the Western US from 2006 through 2008. Patients who met any of the field trauma triage criteria (per EMS personnel) were considered triage positive. Hospital outcomes measures were probabilistically linked to EMS records through trauma registries, state discharge data, and emergency department data. The primary outcome defining a "major trauma patient" was ISS ≥ 16.

RESULTS

There were 122,345 injured patients evaluated and transported by EMS over the 3-year period, 34.5% of whom met at least 1 triage criterion and 5.8% had ISS ≥ 16. The overall sensitivity and specificity of the criteria for identifying major trauma patients were 85.8% (95% CI 85.0% to 86.6%) and 68.7% (95% CI 68.4% to 68.9%), respectively. Triage sensitivity and specificity, respectively, differed by age: 84.1% and 66.4% (0 to 17 years); 89.5% and 64.3% (18 to 54 years); and 79.9% and 75.4% (≥55 years). Evaluating the diagnostic value of triage by hospital destination (transport to Level I/II trauma centers) did not substantially improve these findings.

CONCLUSIONS

The sensitivity of the Field Triage Decision Scheme for identifying major trauma patients is lower and specificity higher than previously described, particularly among elders.

The use of home location to proxy injury location and implications for regionalized trauma system planning

BACKGROUND

Trauma system planners use patient home address as a proxy for injury location, although this proxy has not been validated. We sought to determine the precision of this proxy by evaluating the relationship between the location of injury death and the location of residence.

METHODS

This national descriptive analysis used the Multiple Cause of Death data files from 1999 to 2006 to determine the proportion of subjects in which county of residence (RC) matched county of death for all US injury deaths. Subgroup analyses were completed by age and injury intentionality using two sample tests of proportions. χ(2) tests were used to evaluate differences in concordance over time and by size of the RC.

RESULTS

Analysis included 3,141 US counties and 1,255,881 subjects. A total of 73.4% of subjects died in the RC and 87.7% died in the RC or a contiguous county. Intentional injury deaths were more likely than unintentional to happen within a decedent's RC (85.1% vs. 68.1%, p < 0.001) and within the RC or contiguous county (93.4% vs. 85.2%, p < 0.001). Adult injury deaths were more likely than pediatric to happen within a decedent's RC (73.6% vs. 68.4%, p < 0.001) and within the RC or contiguous county (87.9% vs. 84.2%, p < 0.001). Subjects from larger counties were more likely to die within the RC or a contiguous county (same p < 0.001, same or adjacent p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The preponderance of fatal injury deaths occur close to home. This supports the practice of trauma system's planning using home location available in administrative data to proxy injury location.

Helicopter EMS: Research Endpoints and Potential Benefits

Patients, EMS systems, and healthcare regions benefit from Helicopter EMS (HEMS) utilization. This article discusses these benefits in terms of specific endpoints utilized in research projects. The endpoint of interest, be it primary, secondary, or surrogate, is important to understand in the deployment of HEMS resources or in planning further HEMS outcomes research. The most important outcomes are those which show potential benefits to the patients, such as functional survival, pain relief, and earlier ALS care. Case reports are also important "outcomes" publications. The benefits of HEMS in the rural setting is the ability to provide timely access to Level I or Level II trauma centers and in nontrauma, interfacility transport of cardiac, stroke, and even sepsis patients. Many HEMS crews have pharmacologic and procedural capabilities that bring a different level of care to a trauma scene or small referring hospital, especially in the rural setting. Regional healthcare and EMS system's benefit from HEMS by their capability to extend the advanced level of care throughout a region, provide a "backup" for areas with limited ALS coverage, minimize transport times, make available direct transport to specialized centers, and offer flexibility of transport in overloaded hospital systems.

Out-of-hospital decision making and factors influencing the regional distribution of injured patients in a trauma system

BACKGROUND

The decision-making processes used for out-of-hospital trauma triage and hospital selection in regionalized trauma systems remain poorly understood. The objective of this study was to assess the process of field triage decision making in an established trauma system.

METHODS

We used a mixed methods approach, including emergency medical services (EMS) records to quantify triage decisions and reasons for hospital selection in a population-based, injury cohort (2006-2008), plus a focused ethnography to understand EMS cognitive reasoning in making triage decisions. The study included 10 EMS agencies providing service to a four-county regional trauma system with three trauma centers and 13 nontrauma hospitals. For qualitative analyses, we conducted field observation and interviews with 35 EMS field providers and a round table discussion with 40 EMS management personnel to generate an empirical model of out-of-hospital decision making in trauma triage.

RESULTS

A total of 64,190 injured patients were evaluated by EMS, of whom 56,444 (88.0%) were transported to acute care hospitals and 9,637 (17.1% of transports) were field trauma activations. For nontrauma activations, patient/family preference and proximity accounted for 78% of destination decisions. EMS provider judgment was cited in 36% of field trauma activations and was the sole criterion in 23% of trauma patients. The empirical model demonstrated that trauma triage is driven primarily by EMS provider "gut feeling" (judgment) and relies heavily on provider experience, mechanism of injury, and early visual cues at the scene.

CONCLUSIONS

Provider cognitive reasoning for field trauma triage is more heuristic than algorithmic and driven primarily by provider judgment, rather than specific triage criteria.

Does the rural trauma team development course shorten the interval from trauma patient arrival to decision to transfer?

BACKGROUND

The Rural Trauma Team Development Course (RTTDC) was developed by the ad hoc Rural Trauma Committee of the American College of Surgeons, Committee on Trauma to address the increased mortality of the rural trauma patient. The effectiveness of the RTTDC in shortening the interval from patient arrival to decision to transfer and the effect on the transfer process of communication training emphasizing team building is the focus of this study.

METHOD

Rural level III and level IV trauma centers (N=18) were enrolled in a multiinstitutional 3-month longitudinal study of transferred trauma patients. Results were compared with institutions having hosted RTTDC versus those institutions not yet exposed to the course.

RESULTS

One-way analysis of variance was conducted. Results indicated that RTTDC training alone and RTTDC including communication training resulted in a statistically significantly shorter (p<0.05) time for decision to transfer. Transferring squad arrival time was also significantly reduced (p<0.01) as was the number of transferring squads contacted (p<0.01). No differences were observed among the trauma facilities and the number of receiving facilities contacted, (p=0.64) or in the time required to find an accepting facility (p=0.72).

CONCLUSION

The RTTDC alone and with the embedded communication module significantly reduce delays in the transfer process of the rural trauma patient.

Characteristics of pediatric trauma transfers to a level i trauma center: implications for developing a regionalized pediatric trauma system in california

BACKGROUND

since California lacks a statewide trauma system, there are no uniform interfacility pediatric trauma transfer guidelines across local emergency medical services (EMS) agencies in California. This may result in delays in obtaining optimal care for injured children.

OBJECTIVES

this study sought to understand patterns of pediatric trauma patient transfers to the study trauma center as a first step in assessing the quality and efficiency of pediatric transfer within the current trauma system model. Outcome measures included clinical and demographic characteristics, distances traveled, and centers bypassed. The hypothesis was that transferred patients would be more severely injured than directly admitted patients, primary catchment transfers would be few, and out-of-catchment transfers would come from hospitals in close geographic proximity to the study center.

METHODS

this was a retrospective observational analysis of trauma patients ≤ 18 years of age in the institutional trauma database (2000-2007). All patients with a trauma International Classification of Diseases, 9th revision (ICD-9) code and trauma mechanism who were identified as a trauma patient by EMS or emergency physicians were recorded in the trauma database, including those patients who were discharged home. Trauma patients brought directly to the emergency department (ED) and patients transferred from other facilities to the center were compared. A geographic information system (GIS) was used to calculate the straight-line distances from the referring hospitals to the study center and to all closer centers potentially capable of accepting interfacility pediatric trauma transfers.

RESULTS

of 2,798 total subjects, 16.2% were transferred from other facilities within California; 69.8% of transfers were from the catchment area, with 23.0% transferred from facilities ≤ 10 miles from the center. This transfer pattern was positively associated with private insurance (risk ratio [RR] = 2.05; p < 0.001) and negatively associated with age 15-18 years (RR = 0.23; p = 0.01) and Injury Severity Score (ISS) > 18 (RR = 0.26; p < 0.01). The out-of-catchment transfers accounted for 30.2% of the patients, and 75.9% of these noncatchment transfers were in closer proximity to another facility potentially capable of accepting pediatric interfacility transfers. The overall median straight-line distance from noncatchment referring hospitals to the study center was 61.2 miles (IQR = 19.0-136.4), compared to 33.6 miles (IQR = 13.9-61.5) to the closest center. Transfer patients were more severely injured than directly admitted patients (p < 0.001). Out-of-catchment transfers were older than catchment patients (p < 0.001); ISS > 18 (RR = 2.06; p < 0.001) and age 15-18 (RR = 1.28; p < 0.001) were predictive of out-of-catchment patients bypassing other pediatric-capable centers. Finally, 23.7% of pediatric trauma transfer requests to the study institution were denied due to lack of bed capacity.

CONCLUSIONS

from the perspective an adult Level I trauma center with a certified pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), delays in definitive pediatric trauma care appear to be present secondary to initial transport to nontrauma community hospitals within close proximity of a trauma hospital, long transfer distances to accepting facilities, and lack of capacity at the study center. Given the absence of uniform trauma triage and transfer guidelines across state EMS systems, there appears to be a role for quality monitoring and improvement of the current interfacility pediatric trauma transfer system, including defined triage, transfer, and data collection protocols.