Proteasomes. A molecular census of 26S proteasomes in intact neurons

RAZA: A Rapid 3D z-crossings algorithm to segment electron tomograms and extract organelles and macromolecules

Resolving the 3D architecture of cells to atomic resolution is one of the most ambitious challenges of cellular and structural biology. Central to this process is the ability to automate tomogram segmentation to identify sub-cellular components, facilitate molecular docking and annotate detected objects with associated metadata. Here we demonstrate that RAZA (Rapid 3D z-crossings algorithm) provides a robust, accurate, intuitive, fast, and generally applicable segmentation algorithm capable of detecting organelles, membranes, macromolecular assemblies and extrinsic membrane protein domains. RAZA defines each continuous contour within a tomogram as a discrete object and extracts a set of 3D structural fingerprints (major, middle and minor axes, surface area and volume), enabling selective, semi-automated segmentation and object extraction. RAZA takes advantage of the fact that the underlying algorithm is a true 3D edge detector, allowing the axes of a detected object to be defined, independent of its random orientation within a cellular tomogram. The selectivity of object segmentation and extraction can be controlled by specifying a user-defined detection tolerance threshold for each fingerprint parameter, within which segmented objects must fall and/or by altering the number of search parameters, to define morphologically similar structures. We demonstrate the capability of RAZA to selectively extract subgroups of organelles (mitochondria) and macromolecular assemblies (ribosomes) from cellular tomograms. Furthermore, the ability of RAZA to define objects and their contours, provides a basis for molecular docking and rapid tomogram annotation.

Regulating protein breakdown through proteasome phosphorylation

The ubiquitin proteasome system degrades the great majority of proteins in mammalian cells. Countless studies have described how ubiquitination promotes the selective degradation of different cell proteins. However, there is a small but the growing literature that protein half-lives can also be regulated by post-translational modifications of the 26S proteasome. The present study reviews the ability of several kinases to alter proteasome function through subunit phosphorylation. For example, PKA (protein kinase A) and DYRK2 (dual-specificity tyrosine-regulated kinase 2) stimulate the proteasome's ability to degrade ubiquitinated proteins, peptides, and adenosine triphosphate, while one kinase, ASK1 (apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1), inhibits proteasome function during apoptosis. Proteasome phosphorylation is likely to be important in regulating protein degradation because it occurs downstream from many hormones and neurotransmitters, in conditions that raise cyclic adenosine monophosphate or cyclic guanosine monophosphate levels, after calcium influx following synaptic depolarization, and during phases of the cell cycle. Beyond its physiological importance, pharmacological manipulation of proteasome phosphorylation has the potential to combat various diseases. Inhibitors of phosphodiesterases by activating PKA or PKG (protein kinase G) can stimulate proteasomal degradation of misfolded proteins that cause neurodegenerative or myocardial diseases and even reduce the associated pathology in mouse models. These observations are promising since in many proteotoxic diseases, aggregation-prone proteins impair proteasome function, and disrupt protein homeostasis. Conversely, preventing subunit phosphorylation by DYRK2 slows cell cycle progression and tumor growth. However, further research is essential to determine how phosphorylation of different subunits by these (or other) kinases alters the properties of this complex molecular machine and thus influence protein degradation rates.

In Situ Architecture and Cellular Interactions of PolyQ Inclusions

Expression of many disease-related aggregation-prone proteins results in cytotoxicity and the formation of large intracellular inclusion bodies. To gain insight into the role of inclusions in pathology and the in situ structure of protein aggregates inside cells, we employ advanced cryo-electron tomography methods to analyze the structure of inclusions formed by polyglutamine (polyQ)-expanded huntingtin exon 1 within their intact cellular context. In primary mouse neurons and immortalized human cells, polyQ inclusions consist of amyloid-like fibrils that interact with cellular endomembranes, particularly of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Interactions with these fibrils lead to membrane deformation, the local impairment of ER organization, and profound alterations in ER membrane dynamics at the inclusion periphery. These results suggest that aberrant interactions between fibrils and endomembranes contribute to the deleterious cellular effects of protein aggregation. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Convolutional neural networks for automated annotation of cellular cryo-electron tomograms

Cellular Electron Cryotomography (CryoET) offers the ability to look inside cells and observe macromolecules frozen in action. A primary challenge for this technique is identifying and extracting the molecular components within the crowded cellular environment. We introduce a method using neural networks to dramatically reduce the time and human effort required for subcellular annotation and feature extraction. Subsequent subtomogram classification and averaging yields in-situ structures of molecular components of interest.

Volume Segmentation and Analysis of Biological Materials Using SuRVoS (Super-region Volume Segmentation) Workbench

Segmentation is the process of isolating specific regions or objects within an imaged volume, so that further study can be undertaken on these areas of interest. When considering the analysis of complex biological systems, the segmentation of three-dimensional image data is a time consuming and labor intensive step. With the increased availability of many imaging modalities and with automated data collection schemes, this poses an increased challenge for the modern experimental biologist to move from data to knowledge. This publication describes the use of SuRVoS Workbench, a program designed to address these issues by providing methods to semi-automatically segment complex biological volumetric data. Three datasets of differing magnification and imaging modalities are presented here, each highlighting different strategies of segmenting with SuRVoS. Phase contrast X-ray tomography (microCT) of the fruiting body of a plant is used to demonstrate segmentation using model training, cryo electron tomography (cryoET) of human platelets is used to demonstrate segmentation using super- and megavoxels, and cryo soft X-ray tomography (cryoSXT) of a mammalian cell line is used to demonstrate the label splitting tools. Strategies and parameters for each datatype are also presented. By blending a selection of semi-automatic processes into a single interactive tool, SuRVoS provides several benefits. Overall time to segment volumetric data is reduced by a factor of five when compared to manual segmentation, a mainstay in many image processing fields. This is a significant savings when full manual segmentation can take weeks of effort. Additionally, subjectivity is addressed through the use of computationally identified boundaries, and splitting complex collections of objects by their calculated properties rather than on a case-by-case basis.

Morphologies of synaptic protein membrane fusion interfaces

Neurotransmitter release is orchestrated by synaptic proteins, such as SNAREs, synaptotagmin, and complexin, but the molecular mechanisms remain unclear. We visualized functionally active synaptic proteins reconstituted into proteoliposomes and their interactions in a native membrane environment by electron cryotomography with a Volta phase plate for improved resolvability. The images revealed individual synaptic proteins and synaptic protein complex densities at prefusion contact sites between membranes. We observed distinct morphologies of individual synaptic proteins and their complexes. The minimal system, consisting of neuronal SNAREs and synaptotagmin-1, produced point and long-contact prefusion states. Morphologies and populations of these states changed as the regulatory factors complexin and Munc13 were added. Complexin increased the membrane separation, along with a higher propensity of point contacts. Further inclusion of the priming factor Munc13 exclusively restricted prefusion states to point contacts, all of which efficiently fused upon Ca2+ triggering. We conclude that synaptic proteins have evolved to limit possible contact site assemblies and morphologies to those that promote fast Ca2+-triggered release.

Toward an understanding of the Cdc48/p97 ATPase

A conserved AAA+ ATPase, called Cdc48 in yeast and p97 or VCP in metazoans, plays an essential role in many cellular processes by segregating polyubiquitinated proteins from complexes or membranes. For example, in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated protein degradation (ERAD), Cdc48/p97 pulls polyubiquitinated, misfolded proteins out of the ER and transfers them to the proteasome. Cdc48/p97 consists of an N-terminal domain and two ATPase domains (D1 and D2). Six Cdc48 monomers form a double-ring structure surrounding a central pore. Cdc48/p97 cooperates with a number of different cofactors, which bind either to the N-terminal domain or to the C-terminal tail. The mechanism of Cdc48/p97 action is poorly understood, despite its critical role in many cellular systems. Recent in vitro experiments using yeast Cdc48 and its heterodimeric cofactor Ufd1/Npl4 (UN) have resulted in novel mechanistic insight. After interaction of the substrate-attached polyubiquitin chain with UN, Cdc48 uses ATP hydrolysis in the D2 domain to move the polypeptide through its central pore, thereby unfolding the substrate. ATP hydrolysis in the D1 domain is involved in substrate release from the Cdc48 complex, which requires the cooperation of the ATPase with a deubiquitinase (DUB). Surprisingly, the DUB does not completely remove all ubiquitin molecules; the remaining oligoubiquitin chain is also translocated through the pore. Cdc48 action bears similarities to the translocation mechanisms employed by bacterial AAA ATPases and the eukaryotic 19S subunit of the proteasome, but differs significantly from that of a related type II ATPase, the NEM-sensitive fusion protein (NSF). Many questions about Cdc48/p97 remain unanswered, including how it handles well-folded substrate proteins, how it passes substrates to the proteasome, and how various cofactors modify substrates and regulate its function.

Cryo-electron tomography-the cell biology that came in from the cold

Cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) provides high-resolution 3D views into cells pristinely preserved by vitrification. Recent technical advances such as direct electron detectors, the Volta phase plate and cryo-focused ion beam milling have dramatically pushed image quality and expanded the range of cryo-ET applications. Cryo-ET not only allows mapping the positions and interactions of macromolecules within their intact cellular context, but can also reveal their in situ structure at increasing resolution. Here, we review how recent work using cutting-edge cryo-ET technologies is starting to provide fresh views into different aspects of cellular biology at an unprecedented level of detail. We anticipate that these developments will soon make cryo-ET a fundamental technique in cell biology.

Cryo-electron microscopy for structural analysis of dynamic biological macromolecules

BACKGROUND

Since the introduction of what became today's standard for cryo-embedding of biological macromolecules at native conditions more than 30years ago, techniques and equipment have been drastically improved and the structure of biomolecules can now be studied at near atomic resolution by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) while capturing multiple dynamic states. Here we review the recent progress in cryo-EM for structural studies of dynamic biological macromolecules.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

We provide an overview of the cryo-EM method and introduce contemporary studies to investigate biomolecular structure and dynamics, including examples from the recent literature.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Cryo-EM is a powerful tool for the investigation of biological macromolecular structures including analysis of their dynamics by using advanced image-processing algorithms. The method has become even more widely applicable with present-day single particle analysis and electron tomography.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The cryo-EM method can be used to determine the three-dimensional structure of biomacromolecules in near native condition at close to atomic resolution, and has the potential to reveal conformations of dynamic molecular complexes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Biophysical Exploration of Dynamical Ordering of Biomolecular Systems" edited by Dr. Koichi Kato.

Hsp70 - a master regulator in protein degradation

Proteostasis, the controlled balance of protein synthesis, folding, assembly, trafficking and degradation, is a paramount necessity for cell homeostasis. Impaired proteostasis is a hallmark of ageing and of many human diseases. Molecular chaperones are essential for proteostasis in eukaryotic cells, and their function has traditionally been linked to protein folding, assembly and disaggregation. More recent findings suggest that chaperones also contribute to key steps in protein degradation. In particular, Hsp70 has an essential role in substrate degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome system, as well as through different autophagy pathways. Accumulated knowledge suggests that the fate of an Hsp70 substrate is dictated by the combination of partners (cochaperones and other chaperones) that interact with Hsp70 in a given cell context.

Structural Biology outside the box-inside the cell

Recent developments in cellular cryo-electron tomography, in-cell single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer-spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance-spectroscopy and electron paramagnetic resonance-spectroscopy delivered unprecedented insights into the inner workings of cells. Here, we review complementary aspects of these methods and provide an outlook toward joint applications in the future.

The Logic of the 26S Proteasome

The ubiquitin proteasome pathway is responsible for most of the protein degradation in mammalian cells. Rates of degradation by this pathway have generally been assumed to be determined by rates of ubiquitylation. However, recent studies indicate that proteasome function is also tightly regulated and determines whether a ubiquitylated protein is destroyed or deubiquitylated and survives longer. This article reviews recent advances in our understanding of the proteasome's multistep ATP-dependent mechanism, its biochemical and structural features that ensure efficient proteolysis and ubiquitin recycling while preventing nonselective proteolysis, and the regulation of proteasome activity by interacting proteins and subunit modifications, especially phosphorylation.

Nitric Oxide Upregulates Proteasomal Protein Degradation in Neurons

Nitric oxide (NO) is involved in many neuronal functions such as neuromodulation and intracellular signaling. Recent studies have demonstrated that nitric oxide is involved in regulation of proteasomal protein degradation. However, its role in neuronal protein degradation still remains unclear. In our study, we investigated the influence of endogenous nitric oxide production in this process. We have shown that nitric oxide synthase blockade prevents decline of the UbG76V-GFP fluorescence (GFP-based proteasomal protein degradation reporter) in neuronal processes of the cultured hippocampal neurons. It suggests that nitric oxide may regulate ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal protein degradation in neurons. Also, we have confirmed that the NO synthesis blockade alone significantly impairs long-term potentiation, and demonstrated for the first time that simultaneous blockade of the NO and proteins synthesis leads to the long-term potentiation amplitude rescue to the control values. Obtained results suggest that nitric oxide is involved in the protein degradation in proteasomes in physiological conditions.

Near-concentric Fabry-Pérot cavity for continuous-wave laser control of electron waves

Manipulating free-space electron wave functions with laser fields can bring about new electron-optical elements for transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In particular, a Zernike phase plate would enable high-contrast TEM imaging of soft matter, leading to new opportunities in structural biology and materials science. A Zernike phase plate can be implemented using a tight, intense continuous laser focus that shifts the phase of the electron wave by the ponderomotive potential. Here, we use a near-concentric cavity to focus 7.5 kW of continuous-wave circulating laser power at 1064 nm into a 7 µm mode waist, achieving a record continuous laser intensity of 40 GW/cm². Such parameters are sufficient to impart a phase shift of 1 rad to a 10 keV electron beam, or 0.16 rad to a 300 keV beam. Our numerical simulations confirm that the standing-wave phase shift profile imprinted on the electron wave by the intra-cavity field can serve as a nearly ideal Zernike phase plate.

The advent of structural biology in situ by single particle cryo-electron tomography

Single particle tomography (SPT), also known as subtomogram averaging, is a powerful technique uniquely poised to address questions in structural biology that are not amenable to more traditional approaches like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and conventional cryoEM single particle analysis. Owing to its potential for in situ structural biology at subnanometer resolution, SPT has been gaining enormous momentum in the last five years and is becoming a prominent, widely used technique. This method can be applied to unambiguously determine the structures of macromolecular complexes that exhibit compositional and conformational heterogeneity, both in vitro and in situ. Here we review the development of SPT, highlighting its applications and identifying areas of ongoing development.

TomoMiner and TomoMinerCloud: A Software Platform for Large-Scale Subtomogram Structural Analysis

Cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) captures the 3D electron density distribution of macromolecular complexes in close to native state. With the rapid advance of cryo-ET acquisition technologies, it is possible to generate large numbers (>100,000) of subtomograms, each containing a macromolecular complex. Often, these subtomograms represent a heterogeneous sample due to variations in the structure and composition of a complex in situ form or because particles are a mixture of different complexes. In this case subtomograms must be classified. However, classification of large numbers of subtomograms is a time-intensive task and often a limiting bottleneck. This paper introduces an open source software platform, TomoMiner, for large-scale subtomogram classification, template matching, subtomogram averaging, and alignment. Its scalable and robust parallel processing allows efficient classification of tens to hundreds of thousands of subtomograms. In addition, TomoMiner provides a pre-configured TomoMinerCloud computing service permitting users without sufficient computing resources instant access to TomoMiners high-performance features.

Recent insights on principles of synaptic protein degradation

Maintaining synaptic integrity and function depends on the continuous removal and degradation of aged or damaged proteins. Synaptic protein degradation has received considerable attention in the context of synaptic plasticity and growing interest in relation to neurodegenerative and other disorders. Conversely, less attention has been given to constitutive, ongoing synaptic protein degradation and the roles canonical degradation pathways play in these processes. Here we briefly review recent progress on this topic and new experimental approaches which have expedited such progress and highlight several emerging principles. These include the realization that synaptic proteins typically have unusually long lifetimes, as might be expected from the remote locations of most synaptic sites; the possibility that degradation pathways can change with time from synthesis, cellular context, and physiological input; and that degradation pathways, other than ubiquitin-proteasomal-mediated degradation, might play key roles in constitutive protein degradation at synaptic sites. Finally, we point to the importance of careful experimental design and sufficiently sensitive techniques for studying synaptic protein degradation, which bring into account their slow turnover rates and complex life cycles.

Advances in phase plate cryo-EM imaging of DNA and nucleosomes

Contrast in electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) is limited by the weak phase and radiation sensitive nature of biologic samples embedded in vitrified ice. We have recently shown that a new contrast enhancement technique utilizing the Volta phase plate can be combined with single particle analysis to determine the structure of a small chromatin complex, the nucleosome core particle, at near-atomic resolution. Here, we discuss advantages and limitations of the technique in terms of data collection, particle detection, and visualization of individual DNA molecules and higher-order chromatin structure.

Single-protein detection in crowded molecular environments in cryo-EM images

We present an approach to study macromolecular assemblies by detecting component proteins' characteristic high-resolution projection patterns, calculated from their known 3D structures, in single electron cryo-micrographs. Our method detects single apoferritin molecules in vitreous ice with high specificity and determines their orientation and location precisely. Simulations show that high spatial-frequency information and-in the presence of protein background-a whitening filter are essential for optimal detection, in particular for images taken far from focus. Experimentally, we could detect small viral RNA polymerase molecules, distributed randomly among binding locations, inside rotavirus particles. Based on the currently attainable image quality, we estimate a threshold for detection that is 150 kDa in ice and 300 kDa in 100 nm thick samples of dense biological material.

Cellular Electron Cryotomography: Toward Structural Biology In Situ

Electron cryotomography (ECT) provides three-dimensional views of macromolecular complexes inside cells in a native frozen-hydrated state. Over the last two decades, ECT has revealed the ultrastructure of cells in unprecedented detail. It has also allowed us to visualize the structures of macromolecular machines in their native context inside intact cells. In many cases, such machines cannot be purified intact for in vitro study. In other cases, the function of a structure is lost outside the cell, so that the mechanism can be understood only by observation in situ. In this review, we describe the technique and its history and provide examples of its power when applied to cell biology. We also discuss the integration of ECT with other techniques, including lower-resolution fluorescence imaging and higher-resolution atomic structure determination, to cover the full scale of cellular processes.

The deubiquitinating enzyme Usp14 allosterically inhibits multiple proteasomal activities and ubiquitin-independent proteolysis

The proteasome-associated deubiquitinating enzyme Usp14/Ubp6 inhibits protein degradation by catalyzing substrate deubiquitination and by poorly understood allosteric actions. However, upon binding a ubiquitin chain, Usp14 enhances proteasomal degradation by stimulating ATP and peptide degradation. These studies were undertaken to clarify these seemingly opposite regulatory roles of Usp14 and their importance. To learn how the presence of Usp14 on 26S proteasomes influences its different activities, we compared enzymatic and regulatory properties of 26S proteasomes purified from wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblast cells and those lacking Usp14. The proteasomes lacking Usp14 had higher basal peptidase activity than WT 26S, and this activity was stimulated to a greater extent by adenosine 5'-O-(thiotriphosphate) (ATPγS) than with WT particles. These differences were clear even though Usp14 is present on only a minor fraction (30-40%) of the 26S in WT mouse embryonic fibroblast cells. Addition of purified Usp14 to the WT and Usp14-defficient proteasomes reduced both their basal peptidase activity and the stimulation by ATPγS. Usp14 inhibits these processes allosterically because a catalytically inactive Usp14 mutant also inhibited them. Proteasomes lacking Usp14 also exhibited greater deubiquitinating activity by Rpn11 and greater basal ATPase activity than WT particles. ATP hydrolysis by WT proteasomes is activated if they bind a ubiquitinated protein, which is loosely folded. Surprisingly, proteasomes lacking Usp14 could be activated by such proteins even without a ubiquitin chain present. Furthermore, proteasomes lacking Usp14 are much more active in degrading non-ubiquitinated proteins (e.g. Sic1) than WT particles. Thus, without a ubiquitinated substrate present, Usp14 suppresses multiple proteasomal activities, especially basal ATP consumption and degradation of non-ubiquitinated proteins. These allosteric effects thus reduce ATP hydrolysis by inactive proteasomes and nonspecific proteolysis and enhance proteasomal specificity for ubiquitinated proteins.

In situ structural studies of tripeptidyl peptidase II (TPPII) reveal spatial association with proteasomes

Tripeptidyl peptidase II (TPPII) is a eukaryotic protease acting downstream of the 26S proteasome; it removes tripeptides from the degradation products released by the proteasome. Structural studies in vitro have revealed the basic architecture of TPPII, a two-stranded linear polymer that assembles to form a spindle-shaped complex of ∼6 MDa. Dependent on protein concentration, TPPII has a distinct tendency for polymorphism. Therefore, its structure in vivo has remained unclear. To resolve this issue, we have scrutinized cryo-electron tomograms of rat hippocampal neurons for the occurrence and spatial distribution of TPPII by template matching. The quality of the tomograms recorded with the Volta phase plate enabled a detailed structural analysis of TPPII despite its low abundance. Two different assembly states (36-mers and 32-mers) coexist as well as occasional extended forms with longer strands. A distance analysis of the relative locations of TPPII and 26S proteasomes confirmed the visual impression that these two complexes spatially associate in agreement with TPPII's role in postproteasomal degradation.

Ubiquitinated proteins promote the association of proteasomes with the deubiquitinating enzyme Usp14 and the ubiquitin ligase Ube3c

In mammalian cells, the 26S proteasomes vary in composition. In addition to the standard 28 subunits in the 20S core particle and 19 subunits in each 19S regulatory particle, a small fraction (about 10-20% in our preparations) also contains the deubiquitinating enzyme Usp14/Ubp6, which regulates proteasome activity, and the ubiquitin ligase, Ube3c/Hul5, which enhances proteasomal processivity. When degradation of ubiquitinated proteins in cells was inhibited, levels of Usp14 and Ube3c on proteasomes increased within minutes. Conversely, when protein ubiquitination was prevented, or when purified proteasomes hydrolyzed the associated ubiquitin conjugates, Usp14 and Ube3c dissociated rapidly (unlike other 26S subunits), but the inhibitor ubiquitin aldehyde slowed their dissociation. Recombinant Usp14 associated with purified proteasomes preferentially if they contained ubiquitin conjugates. In cells or extracts, adding Usp14 inhibitors (IU-1 or ubiquitin aldehyde) enhanced Usp14 and Ube3c binding further. Thus, in the substrate- or the inhibitor-bound conformations, Usp14 showed higher affinity for proteasomes and surprisingly enhanced Ube3c binding. Moreover, adding ubiquitinated proteins to cell extracts stimulated proteasome binding of both enzymes. Thus, Usp14 and Ube3c cycle together on and off proteasomes, and the presence of ubiquitinated substrates promotes their association. This mechanism enables proteasome activity to adapt to the supply of substrates.

Deciphering the molecular architecture of membrane contact sites by cryo-electron tomography

At membrane contact sites (MCS) two cellular membranes form tight appositions that play critical roles in fundamental phenomena such as lipid metabolism or Ca²⁺ homeostasis. The interest for these structures has surged in recent years, bringing about the characterization of a plethora of MCS-resident molecules. How those molecules are structurally organized at MCS remains enigmatic, limiting our understanding of MCS function. Whereas such molecular detail is obscured by conventional electron microscopy sample preparation, cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) allows high resolution imaging of cellular landscapes in close-to-native conditions. Here we briefly review the fundamentals of cryo-ET and how recent developments in this technique are beginning to unveil the molecular architecture of MCS. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Contact Sites edited by Christian Ungermann and Benoit Kornmann.

A mammalian nervous-system-specific plasma membrane proteasome complex that modulates neuronal function

In the nervous system, rapidly occurring processes such as neuronal transmission and calcium signaling are affected by short-term inhibition of proteasome function. It remains unclear how proteasomes can acutely regulate such processes, as this is inconsistent with their canonical role in proteostasis. Here, we made the discovery of a mammalian nervous system-specific membrane proteasome complex that directly and rapidly modulates neuronal function by degrading intracellular proteins into extracellular peptides that can stimulate neuronal signaling. This proteasome complex is tightly associated with neuronal plasma membranes, exposed to the extracellular space, and catalytically active. Selective inhibition of this membrane proteasome complex by a cell-impermeable proteasome inhibitor blocked extracellular peptide production and attenuated neuronal activity-induced calcium signaling. Moreover, membrane proteasome-derived peptides are sufficient to induce neuronal calcium signaling. Our discoveries challenge the prevailing notion that proteasomes primarily function to maintain proteostasis, and highlight a form of neuronal communication through a membrane proteasome complex.

Recognition of Client Proteins by the Proteasome

The ubiquitin proteasome system controls the concentrations of regulatory proteins and removes damaged and misfolded proteins from cells. Proteins are targeted to the protease at the center of this system, the proteasome, by ubiquitin tags, but ubiquitin is also used as a signal in other cellular processes. Specificity is conferred by the size and structure of the ubiquitin tags, which are recognized by receptors associated with the different cellular processes. However, the ubiquitin code remains ambiguous, and the same ubiquitin tag can target different proteins to different fates. After binding substrate protein at the ubiquitin tag, the proteasome initiates degradation at a disordered region in the substrate. The proteasome has pronounced preferences for the initiation site, and its recognition represents a second component of the degradation signal.

Reversible phosphorylation of the 26S proteasome

The 26S proteasome at the center of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is essential for virtually all cellular processes of eukaryotes. A common misconception about the proteasome is that, once made, it remains as a static and uniform complex with spontaneous and constitutive activity for protein degradation. Recent discoveries have provided compelling evidence to support the exact opposite insomuch as the 26S proteasome undergoes dynamic and reversible phosphorylation under a variety of physiopathological conditions. In this review, we summarize the history and current understanding of proteasome phosphorylation, and advocate the idea of targeting proteasome kinases/phosphatases as a new strategy for clinical interventions of several human diseases.

SuRVoS: Super-Region Volume Segmentation workbench

Segmentation of biological volumes is a crucial step needed to fully analyse their scientific content. Not having access to convenient tools with which to segment or annotate the data means many biological volumes remain under-utilised. Automatic segmentation of biological volumes is still a very challenging research field, and current methods usually require a large amount of manually-produced training data to deliver a high-quality segmentation. However, the complex appearance of cellular features and the high variance from one sample to another, along with the time-consuming work of manually labelling complete volumes, makes the required training data very scarce or non-existent. Thus, fully automatic approaches are often infeasible for many practical applications. With the aim of unifying the segmentation power of automatic approaches with the user expertise and ability to manually annotate biological samples, we present a new workbench named SuRVoS (Super-Region Volume Segmentation). Within this software, a volume to be segmented is first partitioned into hierarchical segmentation layers (named Super-Regions) and is then interactively segmented with the user's knowledge input in the form of training annotations. SuRVoS first learns from and then extends user inputs to the rest of the volume, while using Super-Regions for quicker and easier segmentation than when using a voxel grid. These benefits are especially noticeable on noisy, low-dose, biological datasets.

Progress and Potential of Electron Cryotomography as Illustrated by Its Application to Bacterial Chemoreceptor Arrays

Electron cryotomography (ECT) can produce three-dimensional images of biological samples such as intact cells in a near-native, frozen-hydrated state to macromolecular resolution (∼4 nm). Because one of its first and most common applications has been to bacterial chemoreceptor arrays, ECT's contributions to this field illustrate well its past, present, and future. While X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy have revealed the structures of nearly all the individual components of chemoreceptor arrays, ECT has revealed the mesoscale information about how the components are arranged within cells. Receptors assemble into a universally conserved 12-nm hexagonal lattice linked by CheA/CheW rings. Membrane-bound arrays are single layered; cytoplasmic arrays are double layered. Images of in vitro reconstitutions have led to a model of how arrays assemble, and images of native arrays in different states have shown that the conformational changes associated with signal transduction are subtle, constraining models of activation and system cooperativity. Phase plates, better detectors, and more stable stages promise even higher resolution and broader application in the near future.

Cellular electron cryo tomography and in situ sub-volume averaging reveal the context of microtubule-based processes

Electron cryo-tomography (cryoET) is currently the only technique that allows the direct observation of proteins in their native cellular environment. Sub-volume averaging of electron tomograms offers a route to increase the signal-to-noise of repetitive biological structures, such improving the information content and interpretability of tomograms. We discuss the potential for sub-volume averaging in highlighting and investigating specific processes in situ, focusing on microtubule structure and viral infection. We show that (i) in situ sub-volume averaging from single tomograms can guide and complement segmentation of biological features, (ii) the in situ determination of the structure of individual viruses is possible as they infect a cell, and (iii) novel, transient processes can be imaged with high levels of detail.

High-resolution cryo-EM structure of the proteasome in complex with ADP-AlFx

The 26S proteasome is an ATP-dependent dynamic 2.5 MDa protease that regulates numerous essential cellular functions through degradation of ubiquitinated substrates. Here we present a near-atomic-resolution cryo-EM map of the S. cerevisiae 26S proteasome in complex with ADP-AlFx. Our biochemical and structural data reveal that the proteasome-ADP-AlFx is in an activated state, displaying a distinct conformational configuration especially in the AAA-ATPase motor region. Noteworthy, this map demonstrates an asymmetric nucleotide binding pattern with four consecutive AAA-ATPase subunits bound with nucleotide. The remaining two subunits, Rpt2 and Rpt6, with empty or only partially occupied nucleotide pocket exhibit pronounced conformational changes in the AAA-ATPase ring, which may represent a collective result of allosteric cooperativity of all the AAA-ATPase subunits responding to ATP hydrolysis. This collective motion of Rpt2 and Rpt6 results in an elevation of their pore loops, which could play an important role in substrate processing of proteasome. Our data also imply that the nucleotide occupancy pattern could be related to the activation status of the complex. Moreover, the HbYX tail insertion may not be sufficient to maintain the gate opening of 20S core particle. Our results provide new insights into the mechanisms of nucleotide-driven allosteric cooperativity of the complex and of the substrate processing by the proteasome.

Precise assembly and regulation of 26S proteasome and correlation between proteasome dysfunction and neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) often involve the formation of abnormal and toxic protein aggregates, which are thought to be the primary factor in ND occurrence and progression. Aged neurons exhibit marked increases in aggregated protein levels, which can lead to increased cell death in specific brain regions. As no specific drugs/therapies for treating the symptoms or/and progression of NDs are available, obtaining a complete understanding of the mechanism underlying the formation of protein aggregates is needed for designing a novel and efficient removal strategy. Intracellular proteolysis generally involves either the lysosomal or ubiquitin-proteasome system. In this review, we focus on the structure and assembly of the proteasome, proteasome-mediated protein degradation, and the multiple dynamic regulatory mechanisms governing proteasome activity. We also discuss the plausibility of the correlation between changes in proteasome activity and the occurrence of NDs. [BMB Reports 2016; 49(9): 459-473]

BAG3-mediated proteostasis at a glance

Cellular and organismal survival depend on the ability to maintain the proteome, even under conditions that threaten protein integrity. BCL2-associated athanogene 3 (BAG3) is essential for protein homeostasis (proteostasis) in stressed cells. Owing to its multi-domain structure, it engages in diverse processes that are crucial for proteome maintenance. BAG3 promotes the activity of molecular chaperones, sequesters and concentrates misfolded proteins, initiates autophagic disposal, and balances transcription, translation and degradation. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster, we discuss the functions of this multi-functional proteostasis tool with a focus on mechanical stress protection and describe the importance of BAG3 for human physiology and pathophysiology.

Proteome complexity and the forces that drive proteome imbalance

The cellular proteome is a complex microcosm of structural and regulatory networks that requires continuous surveillance and modification to meet the dynamic needs of the cell. It is therefore crucial that the protein flux of the cell remains in balance to ensure proper cell function. Genetic alterations that range from chromosome imbalance to oncogene activation can affect the speed, fidelity and capacity of protein biogenesis and degradation systems, which often results in proteome imbalance. An improved understanding of the causes and consequences of proteome imbalance is helping to reveal how these systems can be targeted to treat diseases such as cancer.

Cryo-Electron Tomography: Can it Reveal the Molecular Sociology of Cells in Atomic Detail?

Traditionally, macromolecular structure determination is performed ex situ, that is, with purified materials. But, there are strong incentives to develop approaches to study them in situ in their native functional context. In recent years, cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) has emerged as a powerful method for visualizing the molecular organization of unperturbed cellular landscapes with the potential to attain near-atomic resolution. Here, we review recent work on several macromolecular assemblies, demonstrating the power of in situ studies. We also highlight technical challenges and discuss ways to meet them.

Imaging complement by phase-plate cryo-electron tomography from initiation to pore formation

Phase plates in cryo-electron tomography (cryoET) improve contrast, increasing the ability to discern separate molecules and molecular complexes in dense biomolecular environments. Here, we applied this new technology to the activation of the human complement system. Binding of C1 to antigen-antibody complexes initiates a cascade of proteolytic events that deposits molecules onto adjacent surfaces and terminates with the formation of membrane-attack-complex (MAC) pores in the targeted membranes. We imaged steps in this process using a Volta phase plate mounted on a Titan Krios equipped with a Falcon-II direct electron detector. The data show patches of single-layer antibodies on the surface and C1 bound to antibody platforms, with ca. ∼4% of instances where C1r and C1s proteases have dissociated from C1, and potentially instances of C1 transiently interacting with its substrate C4 or product C4b. Next, extensive deposition of C4b and C3b molecules is apparent, although individual molecules cannot always be properly distinguished with the current methods. Observations of MAC pores include formation of both single and composite pores, and instances of potential soluble-MAC dissociation upon failure of membrane insertion. Overall, application of the Volta phase plate cryoET markedly improved the contrast in the tomograms, which allowed for individual components to be more readily interpreted. However, variability in the phase shift induced by the phase-plate during the course of an experiment, together with incomplete sampling during tomogram acquisition, limited the interpretability of the resulting tomograms. Our studies exemplify the potential in studying molecular processes with complex spatial topologies by phase-plate cryoET.

Tuning the proteasome to brighten the end of the journey

Degradation by the proteasome is the fate for a large portion of cellular proteins, and it plays a major role in maintaining protein homeostasis, as well as in regulating many cellular processes like cell cycle progression. A decrease in proteasome activity has been linked to aging and several age-related neurodegenerative pathologies and highlights the importance of the ubiquitin proteasome system regulation. While the proteasome has been traditionally viewed as a constitutive element of proteolysis, major studies have highlighted how different regulatory mechanisms can impact its activity. Importantly, alterations of proteasomal activity may have major impacts for its function and in therapeutics. On one hand, increasing proteasome activity could be beneficial to prevent the age-related downfall of protein homeostasis, whereas inhibiting or reducing its activity can prevent the proliferation of cancer cells.

Polyhedral 3D structure of human plasma very low density lipoproteins by individual particle cryo-electron tomography1

Human VLDLs assembled in the liver and secreted into the circulation supply energy to peripheral tissues. VLDL lipolysis yields atherogenic LDLs and VLDL remnants that strongly correlate with CVD. Although the composition of VLDL particles has been well-characterized, their 3D structure is elusive because of their variations in size, heterogeneity in composition, structural flexibility, and mobility in solution. Here, we employed cryo-electron microscopy and individual-particle electron tomography to study the 3D structure of individual VLDL particles (without averaging) at both below and above their lipid phase transition temperatures. The 3D reconstructions of VLDL and VLDL bound to antibodies revealed an unexpected polyhedral shape, in contrast to the generally accepted model of a spherical emulsion-like particle. The smaller curvature of surface lipids compared with HDL may also reduce surface hydrophobicity, resulting in lower binding affinity to the hydrophobic distal end of the N-terminal β-barrel domain of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) compared with HDL. The directional binding of CETP to HDL and VLDL may explain the function of CETP in transferring TGs and cholesteryl esters between these particles. This first visualization of the 3D structure of VLDL could improve our understanding of the role of VLDL in atherogenesis.

An evolutionarily conserved pathway controls proteasome homeostasis

The proteasome is essential for the selective degradation of most cellular proteins, but how cells maintain adequate amounts of proteasome is unclear. Here we show that there is an evolutionarily conserved signalling pathway controlling proteasome homeostasis. Central to this pathway is TORC1, the inhibition of which induced all known yeast 19S regulatory particle assembly-chaperones (RACs), as well as proteasome subunits. Downstream of TORC1 inhibition, the yeast mitogen-activated protein kinase, Mpk1, acts to increase the supply of RACs and proteasome subunits under challenging conditions in order to maintain proteasomal degradation and cell viability. This adaptive pathway was evolutionarily conserved, with mTOR and ERK5 controlling the levels of the four mammalian RACs and proteasome abundance. Thus, the central growth and stress controllers, TORC1 and Mpk1/ERK5, endow cells with a rapid and vital adaptive response to adjust proteasome abundance in response to the rising needs of cells. Enhancing this pathway may be a useful therapeutic approach for diseases resulting from impaired proteasomal degradation.

Recent advances in the structural biology of the 26S proteasome

There is growing appreciation for the fundamental role of structural dynamics in the function of macromolecules. In particular, the 26S proteasome, responsible for selective protein degradation in an ATP dependent manner, exhibits dynamic conformational changes that enable substrate processing. Recent cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) work has revealed the conformational dynamics of the 26S proteasome and established the function of the different conformational states. Technological advances such as direct electron detectors and image processing algorithms allowed resolving the structure of the proteasome at atomic resolution. Here we will review those studies and discuss their contribution to our understanding of proteasome function.

The proteasome and epigenetics: zooming in on histone modifications

The proteasome is a structural complex of many proteins that degrades substrates marked by covalent linkage to ubiquitin. Many years of research has shown a role for ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated proteolysis in synaptic plasticity and memory mainly in degrading synaptic, cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins. Recent work indicates that the proteasome has wider proteolytic and non-proteolytic roles in processes such as histone modifications that affect synaptic plasticity and memory. In this review, we assess the evidence gathered from neuronal as well as non-neuronal cell types regarding the function of the proteasome in positive or negative regulation of posttranslational modifications of histones, such as acetylation, methylation and ubiquitination. We discuss the critical roles of the proteasome in clearing excess histone proteins in various cellular contexts and the possible non-proteolytic functions in regulating transcription of target genes. In addition, we summarize the current literature on diverse chromatin-remodeling machineries, such as histone acetyltransferases, deacetylates, methyltransferases and demethylases, as targets for proteasomal degradation across experimental models. Lastly, we provide a perspective on how proteasomal regulation of histone modifications may modulate synaptic plasticity in the nervous system.

Coordinate regulation of autophagy and the ubiquitin proteasome system by MTOR

Proteins in eukaryotic cells are continually being degraded to amino acids either by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) or by the autophagic-lysosomal pathway. The breakdown of proteins by these 2 degradative pathways involves totally different enzymes that function in distinct subcellular compartments. While most studies of the UPS have focused on the selective ubiquitination and breakdown of specific cell proteins, macroautophagy/autophagy is a more global nonselective process. Consequently, the UPS and autophagy were traditionally assumed to serve distinct physiological functions and to be regulated in quite different manners. However, recent findings indicate that protein breakdown by these 2 systems is coordinately regulated by important physiological stimuli. The activation of MTORC1 by nutrients and hormones rapidly suppresses proteolysis by both proteasomes and autophagy, which helps promote protein accumulation, whereas in nutrient-poor conditions, MTORC1 inactivation causes the simultaneous activation of these 2 degradative pathways to supply the deprived cells with a source of amino acids. Also this selective breakdown of key anabolic proteins by the UPS upon MTORC1 inhibition can help limit growth-related processes (e.g., cholesterol biosynthesis). Thus, the collaboration of these 2 degradative systems, together with the simultaneous control of protein translation by MTORC1, provide clear advantages to the organism in both growth and starvation conditions.

The life cycle of the 26S proteasome: from birth, through regulation and function, and onto its death

The 26S proteasome is a large, ∼2.5 MDa, multi-catalytic ATP-dependent protease complex that serves as the degrading arm of the ubiquitin system, which is the major pathway for regulated degradation of cytosolic, nuclear and membrane proteins in all eukaryotic organisms.