Transcranial electric stimulation entrains cortical neuronal populations in rats

Direct effects of transcranial electric stimulation on brain circuits in rats and humans

Transcranial electric stimulation is a non-invasive tool that can influence brain activity; however, the parameters necessary to affect local circuits in vivo remain to be explored. Here, we report that in rodents and human cadaver brains, ~75% of scalp-applied currents are attenuated by soft tissue and skull. Using intracellular and extracellular recordings in rats, we find that at least 1 mV/mm voltage gradient is necessary to affect neuronal spiking and subthreshold currents. We designed an ‘intersectional short pulse’ stimulation method to inject sufficiently high current intensities into the brain, while keeping the charge density and sensation on the scalp surface relatively low. We verify the regional specificity of this novel method in rodents; in humans, we demonstrate how it affects the amplitude of simultaneously recorded EEG alpha waves. Our combined results establish that neuronal circuits are instantaneously affected by intensity currents that are higher than those used in conventional protocols.

Though transcranial electric stimulation has been used to influence brain activity, it is debated whether neuronal spiking activity is directly affected by commonly-used protocols. Here, the authors quantify the voltage gradients necessary to instantaneously affect neuronal spiking and show that they are higher than commonly-used protocols.

Studying and modifying brain function with non-invasive brain stimulation

In the past three decades, our understanding of brain-behavior relationships has been significantly shaped by research using non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques. These methods allow non-invasive and safe modulation of neural processes in the healthy brain, enabling researchers to directly study how experimentally altered neural activity causally affects behavior. This unique property of NIBS methods has, on the one hand, led to groundbreaking findings on the brain basis of various aspects of behavior and has raised interest in possible clinical and practical applications of these methods. On the other hand, it has also triggered increasingly critical debates about the properties and possible limitations of these methods. In this review, we discuss these issues, clarify the challenges associated with the use of currently available NIBS techniques for basic research and practical applications, and provide recommendations for studies using NIBS techniques to establish brain-behavior relationships.

Cortical neuromodulation for neuropathic pain and Parkinson disease: Where are we?

Cortex neuromodulation is promising approach for treatment of some neurological conditions, especially neuropathic pain and Parkinson's disease. Effects of non-invasive cortical stimulation are short lived; transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) may be useful to assess the suitability for invasive cortical stimulation. Direct cortical stimulation (DCS) is the method able to provide long-lasting effects in treatment of neuropathic pain and some symptoms of Parkinson's disease through the use of totally implantable systems that ensure a chronic stimulation.

Ih interacts with somato-dendritic structure to determine frequency response to weak alternating electric field stimulation

Transcranial current stimulation (tCS) modulates brain dynamics using weak electric fields. Given the pathological changes in brain network oscillations in neurological and psychiatric illnesses, using alternating electric field waveforms that engage rhythmic activity has been proposed as a targeted, network-level treatment approach. Previous studies have investigated the effects of electric fields at the neuronal level. However, the biophysical basis of the cellular response to electric fields has remained limited. Here, we characterized the frequency-dependent response of different compartments in a layer V pyramidal neuron to exogenous electric fields to dissect the relative contributions of voltage-gated ion channels and neuronal morphology. Hyperpolarization-activated cation current (I_h) in the distal dendrites was the primary ionic mechanism shaping the model's response to electric field stimulation and caused subthreshold resonance in the tuft at 20 ± 4 Hz. In contrast, subthreshold I_h-mediated resonance in response to local sinusoidal current injection was present in all model compartments at 11 ± 2 Hz. The frequencies of both resonance responses were modulated by I_h conductance density. We found that the difference in resonance frequency between the two stimulation types can be explained by the fact that exogenous electric fields simultaneously polarize the membrane potentials at the distal ends of the neuron (relative to field direction) in opposite directions. Our results highlight the role of I_h in shaping the cellular response to electric field stimulation and suggest that the common model of tCS as a weak somatic current injection fails to capture the cellular effects of electric field stimulation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Modulation of cortical oscillation by brain stimulation serves as a tool to understand the causal role of network oscillations in behavior and is a potential treatment modality that engages impaired network oscillations in disorders of the central nervous system. To develop targeted stimulation paradigms, cellular-level effects must be understood. We demonstrate that hyperpolarization-activated cation current (I_h) and cell morphology cooperatively shape the response to applied alternating electric fields.

Towards a neurodynamical understanding of the prodrome in schizophrenia

The identification of biomarkers for the early diagnosis of schizophrenia that could inform novel treatment developments is an important objective of current research. This paper will summarize recent work that has investigated changes in oscillatory activity and event-related potentials with Electro/Magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG) in participants at high-risk for the development of schizophrenia, highlighting disruptions in sensory and cognitive operations prior to the onset of the syndrome. Changes in EEG/MEG-data are consistent with evidence for alterations in Glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission as disclosed by Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and brain stimulation, indicating changes in Excitation/Inhibition balance parameters prior to the onset of psychosis. Together these data emphasize the importance of research into neuronal dynamics as a crucial approach to establish functional relationships between impairments in neural circuits and emerging psychopathology that together could be fundamental for early intervention and the identification of novel treatments for emerging psychosis.

Hyper-Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation: Experimental Manipulation of Inter-Brain Synchrony

We walk together, we watch together, we win together: Interpersonally coordinated actions are omnipresent in everyday life, yet the associated neural mechanisms are not well understood. Available evidence suggests that the synchronization of oscillatory activity across brains may provide a mechanism for the temporal alignment of actions between two or more individuals. In an attempt to provide a direct test of this hypothesis, we applied transcranial alternating current stimulation simultaneously to two individuals (hyper-tACS) who were asked to drum in synchrony at a set pace. Thirty-eight female-female dyads performed the dyadic drumming in the course of 3 weeks under three different hyper-tACS stimulation conditions: same-phase-same-frequency; different-phase-different-frequency; sham. Based on available evidence and theoretical considerations, stimulation was applied over right frontal and parietal sites in the theta frequency range. We predicted that same-phase-same-frequency stimulation would improve interpersonal action coordination, expressed as the degree of synchrony in dyadic drumming, relative to the other two conditions. Contrary to expectations, both the same-phase-same-frequency and the different-phase-different-frequency conditions were associated with greater dyadic drumming asynchrony relative to the sham condition. No influence of hyper-tACS on behavioral performance was seen when participants were asked to drum separately in synchrony to a metronome. Individual and dyad preferred drumming tempo was also unaffected by hyper-tACS. We discuss limitations of the present version of the hyper-tACS paradigm, and suggest avenues for future research.

And yet it moves: Recovery of volitional control after spinal cord injury

Preclinical and clinical neurophysiological and neurorehabilitation research has generated rather surprising levels of recovery of volitional sensory-motor function in persons with chronic motor paralysis following a spinal cord injury. The key factor in this recovery is largely activity-dependent plasticity of spinal and supraspinal networks. This key factor can be triggered by neuromodulation of these networks with electrical and pharmacological interventions. This review addresses some of the systems-level physiological mechanisms that might explain the effects of electrical modulation and how repetitive training facilitates the recovery of volitional motor control. In particular, we substantiate the hypotheses that: (1) in the majority of spinal lesions, a critical number and type of neurons in the region of the injury survive, but cannot conduct action potentials, and thus are electrically non-responsive; (2) these neuronal networks within the lesioned area can be neuromodulated to a transformed state of electrical competency; (3) these two factors enable the potential for extensive activity-dependent reorganization of neuronal networks in the spinal cord and brain, and (4) propriospinal networks play a critical role in driving this activity-dependent reorganization after injury. Real-time proprioceptive input to spinal networks provides the template for reorganization of spinal networks that play a leading role in the level of coordination of motor pools required to perform a given functional task. Repetitive exposure of multi-segmental sensory-motor networks to the dynamics of task-specific sensory input as occurs with repetitive training can functionally reshape spinal and supraspinal connectivity thus re-enabling one to perform complex motor tasks, even years post injury.

Low frequency transcranial electrical stimulation does not entrain sleep rhythms measured by human intracranial recordings

Transcranial electrical stimulation has widespread clinical and research applications, yet its effect on ongoing neural activity in humans is not well established. Previous reports argue that transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) can entrain and enhance neural rhythms related to memory, but the evidence from non-invasive recordings has remained inconclusive. Here, we measure endogenous spindle and theta activity intracranially in humans during low-frequency tACS and find no stable entrainment of spindle power during non-REM sleep, nor of theta power during resting wakefulness. As positive controls, we find robust entrainment of spindle activity to endogenous slow-wave activity in 66% of electrodes as well as entrainment to rhythmic noise-burst acoustic stimulation in 14% of electrodes. We conclude that low-frequency tACS at common stimulation intensities neither acutely modulates spindle activity during sleep nor theta activity during waking rest, likely because of the attenuated electrical fields reaching the cortical surface.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Facilitates Associative Learning and Alters Functional Connectivity in the Primate Brain

There has been growing interest in transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a non-invasive technique purported to modulate neural activity via weak, externally applied electric fields. Although some promising preliminary data have been reported for applications ranging from stroke rehabilitation to cognitive enhancement, little is known about how tDCS affects the human brain, and some studies have concluded that it may have no effect at all. Here, we describe a macaque model of tDCS that allows us to simultaneously examine the effects of tDCS on brain activity and behavior. We find that applying tDCS to right prefrontal cortex improves monkeys' performance on an associative learning task. While firing rates do not change within the targeted area, tDCS does induce large low-frequency oscillations in the underlying tissue. These oscillations alter functional connectivity, both locally and between distant brain areas, and these long-range changes correlate with tDCS's effects on behavior. Together, these results are consistent with the idea that tDCS leads to widespread changes in brain activity and suggest that it may be a valuable method for cheaply and non-invasively altering functional connectivity in humans.

Modulation of Long-Range Connectivity Patterns via Frequency-Specific Stimulation of Human Cortex

There is increasing interest in how the phase of local oscillatory activity within a brain area determines the long-range functional connectivity of that area. For example, increasing convergent evidence from a range of methodologies suggests that beta (20 Hz) oscillations may play a vital role in the function of the motor system [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The “communication through coherence” hypothesis posits that the precise phase of coherent oscillations in network nodes is a determinant of successful communication between them [6, 7]. Here we set out to determine whether oscillatory activity in the beta band serves to support this theory within the cortical motor network in vivo. We combined non-invasive transcranial alternating-current stimulation (tACS) [8, 9, 10, 11, 12] with resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) [13] to follow both changes in local activity and long-range connectivity, determined by inter-areal blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal correlation, as a proxy for communication in the human cortex. Twelve healthy subjects participated in three fMRI scans with 20 Hz, 5 Hz, or sham tACS applied separately on each scan. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) at beta frequency has previously been shown to increase local activity in the beta band [14] and to modulate long-range connectivity within the default mode network [15]. We demonstrated that beta-frequency tACS significantly changed the connectivity pattern of the stimulated primary motor cortex (M1), without changing overall local activity or network connectivity. This finding is supported by a simple phase-precession model, which demonstrates the plausibility of the results and provides emergent predictions that are consistent with our empirical findings. These findings therefore inform our understanding of how local oscillatory activity may underpin network connectivity.

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tACS does not alter overall functional connectivity between major network nodes

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However, tACS modulates the connectivity pattern of the stimulated motor cortex

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These data directly support the “communication through coherence” hypothesis

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We provide evidence for how disordered connectivity arises from oscillatory changes

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific frequency and in turn modulate ongoing cortical oscillatory activity. This neurotool allows the establishment of a causal link between endogenous oscillatory activity and behavior. Most of the tACS studies have shown online effects of tACS. However, little is known about the underlying action mechanisms of this technique because of the AC-induced artifacts on Electroencephalography (EEG) signals. Here we show a unique approach to investigate online physiological frequency-specific effects of tACS of the primary motor cortex (M1) by using single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to probe cortical excitability changes. In our setup, the TMS coil is placed over the tACS electrode while Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) are collected to test the effects of the ongoing M1-tACS. So far, this approach has mainly been used to study the visual and motor systems. However, the current tACS-TMS setup can pave the way for future investigations of cognitive functions. Therefore, we provide a step-by-step manual and video guidelines for the procedure.

Simultaneously Excitatory and Inhibitory Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation Revealed Using Selective Pulse-Train Stimulation in the Rat Motor Cortex

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) uses sinusoidal, subthreshold, electric fields to modulate cortical processing. Cortical processing depends on a fine balance between excitation and inhibition and tACS acts on both excitatory and inhibitory cortical neurons. Given this, it is not clear whether tACS should increase or decrease cortical excitability. We investigated this using transcranial current stimulation of the rat (all males) motor cortex consisting of a continuous subthreshold sine wave with short bursts of suprathreshold pulse-trains inserted at different phases to probe cortical excitability. We found that when a low-rate, long-duration, suprathreshold pulse-train was used, subthreshold cathodal tACS decreased cortical excitability and anodal tACS increased excitability. However, when a high-rate, short-duration, suprathreshold pulse-train was used this pattern was inverted. An integrate-and-fire model incorporating biophysical differences between cortical excitatory and inhibitory neurons could predict the experimental data and helped interpret these results. The model indicated that low-rate suprathreshold pulse-trains preferentially stimulate excitatory cortical neurons, whereas high-rate suprathreshold pulse-trains stimulate both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. If correct, this indicates that suprathreshold pulse-train stimulation may be able to selectively control the excitation-inhibition balance within a cortical network. The excitation-inhibition balance then likely plays an important role in determining whether subthreshold tACS will increase or decrease cortical excitability.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a noninvasive neuromodulation method that uses weak sinusoidal electric fields to modulate cortical activity. In healthy volunteers tACS can modulate perception, cognition, and motor function but the underlying neural mechanism is poorly understood. In this study, using rat motor cortex, we found that tACS effects are highly variable: applying the same tACS waveform to the same cortical area does not always give the same change in cortical excitability. An integrate-and-fire model incorporating excitatory pyramidal and inhibitory interneurons indicated that tACS effects likely depend on the cortical excitation-inhibition balance. When cortical activity is excitation dominated one particular tACS phase increases excitability, but when the cortical activity is inhibition dominated the same tACS phase actually decreases excitability.

Modulation of Somatosensory Alpha Rhythm by Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation at Mu-Frequency

Introduction: Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is emerging as an interventional tool to modulate different functions of the brain, potentially by interacting with intrinsic ongoing neuronal oscillations. Functionally different intrinsic alpha oscillations are found throughout the cortex. Yet it remains unclear whether tACS is capable of specifically modulating the somatosensory mu-rhythm in amplitude. Objectives: We used tACS to modulate mu-alpha oscillations in amplitude. When compared to sham stimulation we expected a modulation of mu-alpha oscillations but not visual alpha oscillations by tACS. Methods: Individual mu-alpha frequencies were determined in 25 participants. Subsequently, blocks of tACS with individual mu-alpha frequency and sham stimulation were applied over primary somatosensory cortex (SI). Electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded before and after either stimulation or sham. Modulations of mu-alpha and, for control, visual alpha amplitudes were then compared between tACS and sham. Results: Somatosensory mu-alpha oscillations decreased in amplitude after tACS was applied at participants' individual mu-alpha frequency. No changes in amplitude were observed for sham stimulation. Furthermore, visual alpha oscillations were not affected by tACS or sham, respectively. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate the capability of tACS to specifically modulate the targeted somatosensory mu-rhythm when the tACS frequency is tuned to the individual endogenous rhythm and applied over somatosensory areas. Our results are in contrast to previously reported amplitude increases of visual alpha oscillations induced by tACS applied over visual cortex. Our results may point to a specific interaction between our stimulation protocol and the functional architecture of the somatosensory system.

Transcranial electric stimulation for the investigation of speech perception and comprehension

Transcranial electric stimulation (tES), comprising transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), involves applying weak electrical current to the scalp, which can be used to modulate membrane potentials and thereby modify neural activity. Critically, behavioural or perceptual consequences of this modulation provide evidence for a causal role of neural activity in the stimulated brain region for the observed outcome. We present tES as a tool for the investigation of which neural responses are necessary for successful speech perception and comprehension. We summarise existing studies, along with challenges that need to be overcome, potential solutions, and future directions. We conclude that, although standardised stimulation parameters still need to be established, tES is a promising tool for revealing the neural basis of speech processing. Future research can use this method to explore the causal role of brain regions and neural processes for the perception and comprehension of speech.

Ephaptic Coupling of Cortical Neurons: Possible Contribution of Astroglial Magnetic Fields?

The close anatomical and functional relationship between neuronal circuits and the astroglial network in the neocortex has been demonstrated at several organization levels supporting the idea that neuron-astroglial crosstalk can play a key role in information processing. In addition to chemical and electrical neurotransmission, other non-synaptic mechanisms called ephaptic interactions seem to be important to understand neuronal coupling and cognitive functions. Recent interest in this issue comes from the fact that extra-cranial electric and magnetic field stimulations have shown therapeutic actions in the clinical practice. The present paper reviews the current knowledge regarding the ephaptic effects in mammalian neocortex and proposes that astroglial bio-magnetic fields associated with Ca²⁺ transients could be implicated in the ephaptic coupling of neurons by a direct magnetic modulation of the intercellular local field potentials.

Sustained efficacy of closed loop electrical stimulation for long-term treatment of absence epilepsy in rats

Closed-loop brain stimulation is a promising alternative to treat drug-resistant epilepsies. In contrast to optogenetic interventions, transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) does not require cellular modification of neurons to be effective, and it is less invasive compared to deep brain stimulation. Furthermore, on-demand TES of targeted brain regions allows the potential for normal function of these networks during interictal periods, a possibility that is eliminated by resective surgical treatment approaches. To further explore the translation of closed-loop TES for treatment of epilepsy, we show here for the first time that unsupervised closed-loop TES in rats can consistently interrupt seizures for 6 weeks and has the potential to control seizure activity up to 4 months (longest periods examined). On-demand TES significantly reduced the time spent in seizure and the individual seizure duration, although significantly higher seizure rate was observed during the treatment. The 6 week long stimulation had no residual adverse effects on the electrophysiologic characteristics of the brain after the termination of the treatment and did not induce glial remodelling in the brain. Our findings demonstrate the safety and effectiveness of minimally invasive, potentially lifelong TES treatment of epilepsy either alone or as a complement to drug treatments.

Independent Causal Contributions of Alpha- and Beta-Band Oscillations during Movement Selection

To select a movement, specific neuronal populations controlling particular features of that movement need to be activated, whereas other populations are downregulated. The selective (dis)inhibition of cortical sensorimotor populations is governed by rhythmic neural activity in the alpha (8-12 Hz) and beta (15-25 Hz) frequency range. However, it is unclear whether and how these rhythms contribute independently to motor behavior. Building on a recent dissociation of the sensorimotor alpha- and beta-band rhythms, we test the hypothesis that the beta-band rhythm governs the disinhibition of task-relevant neuronal populations, whereas the alpha-band rhythm suppresses neurons that may interfere with task performance. Cortical alpha- and beta-band rhythms were manipulated with transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) while human participants selected how to grasp an object. Stimulation was applied at either 10 or 20 Hz and was imposed on the sensorimotor cortex contralaterally or ipsilaterally to the grasping hand. In line with task-induced changes in endogenous spectral power, the effect of the tACS intervention depended on the frequency and site of stimulation. Whereas tACS stimulation generally increased movement selection times, 10 Hz stimulation led to relatively faster selection times when applied to the hemisphere ipsilateral to the grasping hand, compared with other stimulation conditions. These effects occurred selectively when multiple movements were considered. These observations functionally differentiate the causal contribution of alpha- and beta-band oscillations to movement selection. The findings suggest that sensorimotor beta-band rhythms disinhibit task-relevant populations, whereas alpha-band rhythms inhibit neuronal populations that could interfere with movement selection.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study shows dissociable effects of 10 Hz and 20 Hz tACS on the duration of movement selection. These observations have two elements of general relevance. First, the finding that alpha- and beta-band oscillations contribute independently to movement selection provides insight in how oscillations orchestrate motor behavior, which is key to understand movement selection deficits in neurodegenerative disorders. Second, the findings highlight the potential of 10 Hz stimulation as a neurophysiologically grounded intervention to enhance human performance. In particular, this intervention can potentially be exploited to boost rehabilitation after neural damage by targeting the unaffected hemisphere.

Basic and functional effects of transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES)-An introduction

Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has been gaining increased popularity in human neuroscience research during the last years. Among the emerging NIBS tools is transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), whose main modalities are transcranial direct, and alternating current stimulation (tDCS, tACS). In tES, a small current (usually less than 3mA) is delivered through the scalp. Depending on its shape, density, and duration, the applied current induces acute or long-lasting effects on excitability and activity of cerebral regions, and brain networks. tES is increasingly applied in different domains to (a) explore human brain physiology with regard to plasticity, and brain oscillations, (b) explore the impact of brain physiology on cognitive processes, and (c) treat clinical symptoms in neurological and psychiatric diseases. In this review, we give a broad overview of the main mechanisms and applications of these brain stimulation tools.

Promoting Sleep Oscillations and Their Functional Coupling by Transcranial Stimulation Enhances Memory Consolidation in Mild Cognitive Impairment

Alzheimer's disease (AD) not only involves loss of memory functions, but also prominent deterioration of sleep physiology, which is already evident at the stage of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cortical slow oscillations (SO; 0.5-1 Hz) and thalamocortical spindle activity (12-15 Hz) during sleep, and their temporal coordination, are considered critical for memory formation. We investigated the potential of slow oscillatory transcranial direct current stimulation (so-tDCS), applied during a daytime nap in a sleep-state-dependent manner, to modulate these activity patterns and sleep-related memory consolidation in nine male and seven female human patients with MCI. Stimulation significantly increased overall SO and spindle power, amplified spindle power during SO up-phases, and led to stronger synchronization between SO and spindle power fluctuations in EEG recordings. Moreover, visual declarative memory was improved by so-tDCS compared with sham stimulation and was associated with stronger synchronization. These findings indicate a well-tolerated therapeutic approach for disordered sleep physiology and memory deficits in MCI patients and advance our understanding of offline memory consolidation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the light of increasing evidence that sleep disruption is crucially involved in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), sleep appears as a promising treatment target in this pathology, particularly to counteract memory decline. This study demonstrates the potential of a noninvasive brain stimulation method during sleep in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a precursor of AD, and advances our understanding of its mechanism. We provide first time evidence that slow oscillatory transcranial stimulation amplifies the functional cross-frequency coupling between memory-relevant brain oscillations and improves visual memory consolidation in patients with MCI.

Inconsistent Effects of Parietal α-tACS on Pseudoneglect across Two Experiments: A Failed Internal Replication

Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) is being investigated as an experimental and clinical interventional technique in human participants. While promising, important limitations have been identified, including weak effect sizes and high inter- and intra-individual variability of outcomes. Here, we compared two "inhibitory" tES-techniques with supposedly different mechanisms of action as to their effects on performance in a visuospatial attention task, and report on a direct replication attempt. In two experiments, 2 × 20 healthy participants underwent tES in three separate sessions testing different protocols (10 min stimulation each) with a montage targeting right parietal cortex (right parietal-left frontal, electrode-sizes: 3cm × 3cm-7 cm × 5 cm), while performing a perceptual line bisection (landmark) task. The tES-protocols were compared as to their ability to modulate pseudoneglect (thought to be under right hemispheric control). In experiment 1, sham-tES was compared to transcranial alternating current stimulation at alpha frequency (10 Hz; α-tACS) (expected to entrain "inhibitory" alpha oscillations) and to cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (c-tDCS) (shown to suppress neuronal spiking activity). In experiment 2, we attempted to replicate the findings of experiment 1, and establish frequency-specificity by adding a 45 Hz-tACS condition to α-tACS and sham. In experiment 1, right parietal α-tACS led to the expected changes in spatial attention bias, namely a rightward shift in subjective midpoint estimation (relative to sham). However, this was not confirmed in experiment 2 and in the complete sample. Right parietal c-tDCS and 45 Hz-tACS had no effect. These results highlight the importance of replication studies, adequate statistical power and optimizing tES-interventions for establishing the robustness and reliability of electrical stimulation effects, and best practice.

Enhancement of multitasking performance and neural oscillations by transcranial alternating current stimulation

Multitasking is associated with the generation of stimulus-locked theta (4–7 Hz) oscillations arising from prefrontal cortex (PFC). Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that influences endogenous brain oscillations. Here, we investigate whether applying alternating current stimulation within the theta frequency band would affect multitasking performance, and explore tACS effects on neurophysiological measures. Brief runs of bilateral PFC theta-tACS were applied while participants were engaged in a multitasking paradigm accompanied by electroencephalography (EEG) data collection. Unlike an active control group, a tACS stimulation group showed enhancement of multitasking performance after a 90-minute session (F_1,35 = 6.63, p = 0.01, ηp² = 0.16; effect size = 0.96), coupled with significant modulation of posterior beta (13–30 Hz) activities (F_1,32 = 7.66, p = 0.009, ηp² = 0.19; effect size = 0.96). Across participant regression analyses indicated that those participants with greater increases in frontal theta, alpha and beta oscillations exhibited greater multitasking performance improvements. These results indicate frontal theta-tACS generates benefits on multitasking performance accompanied by widespread neuronal oscillatory changes, and suggests that future tACS studies with extended treatments are worth exploring as promising tools for cognitive enhancement.

Time-dependent Increase in the Network Response to the Stimulation of Neuronal Cell Cultures on Micro-electrode Arrays

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network dynamics in neuronal cultures. In contrast with more traditional methods, such as patch-clamping, which can only record activity from a single cell, MEAs can record simultaneously from multiple sites in a network, without requiring the arduous task of placing each electrode individually. Moreover, numerous control and stimulation configurations can be easily applied within the same experimental setup, allowing for a broad range of dynamics to be explored. One of the key dynamics of interest in these in vitro studies has been the extent to which cultured networks display properties indicative of learning. Mouse neuronal cells cultured on MEAs display an increase in response following training induced by electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neuronal cells on MEAs; successfully record from over 95% of the plated dishes; establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation; and sort, plot, and interpret the results from such experiments. The use of a proprietary system for stimulating and recording neuronal cultures is demonstrated. Software packages are also used to sort neuronal units. A custom-designed graphical user interface is used to visualize post-stimulus time histograms, inter-burst intervals, and burst duration, as well as to compare the cellular response to stimulation before and after a training protocol. Finally, representative results and future directions of this research effort are discussed.

Beta band oscillations in motor cortex reflect neural population signals that delay movement onset

Motor cortical beta oscillations have been reported for decades, yet their behavioral correlates remain unresolved. Some studies link beta oscillations to changes in underlying neural activity, but the specific behavioral manifestations of these reported changes remain elusive. To investigate how changes in population neural activity, beta oscillations, and behavior are linked, we recorded multi-scale neural activity from motor cortex while three macaques performed a novel neurofeedback task. Subjects volitionally brought their beta oscillatory power to an instructed state and subsequently executed an arm reach. Reaches preceded by a reduction in beta power exhibited significantly faster movement onset times than reaches preceded by an increase in beta power. Further, population neural activity was found to shift farther from a movement onset state during beta oscillations that were neurofeedback-induced or naturally occurring during reaching tasks. This finding establishes a population neural basis for slowed movement onset following periods of beta oscillatory activity.

Guiding transcranial brain stimulation by EEG/MEG to interact with ongoing brain activity and associated functions: A position paper

Non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation (NTBS) techniques have a wide range of applications but also suffer from a number of limitations mainly related to poor specificity of intervention and variable effect size. These limitations motivated recent efforts to focus on the temporal dimension of NTBS with respect to the ongoing brain activity. Temporal patterns of ongoing neuronal activity, in particular brain oscillations and their fluctuations, can be traced with electro- or magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG), to guide the timing as well as the stimulation settings of NTBS. These novel, online and offline EEG/MEG-guided NTBS-approaches are tailored to specifically interact with the underlying brain activity. Online EEG/MEG has been used to guide the timing of NTBS (i.e., when to stimulate): by taking into account instantaneous phase or power of oscillatory brain activity, NTBS can be aligned to fluctuations in excitability states. Moreover, offline EEG/MEG recordings prior to interventions can inform researchers and clinicians how to stimulate: by frequency-tuning NTBS to the oscillation of interest, intrinsic brain oscillations can be up- or down-regulated. In this paper, we provide an overview of existing approaches and ideas of EEG/MEG-guided interventions, and their promises and caveats. We point out potential future lines of research to address challenges.

Limitations of ex vivo measurements for in vivo neuroscience

A long history of postmortem studies has provided significant insight into human brain structure and organization. Cadavers have also proven instrumental for the measurement of artifacts and nonneural effects in functional imaging, and more recently, the study of biophysical properties critical to brain stimulation. However, death produces significant changes in the biophysical properties of brain tissues, making an ex vivo to in vivo comparison complex, and even questionable. This study directly compares biophysical properties of electric fields arising from transcranial electric stimulation (TES) in a nonhuman primate brain pre- and postmortem. We show that pre- vs. postmortem, TES-induced intracranial electric fields differ significantly in both strength and frequency response dynamics, even while controlling for confounding factors such as body temperature. Our results clearly indicate that ex vivo cadaver and in vivo measurements are not easily equitable. In vivo examinations remain essential to establishing an adequate understanding of even basic biophysical phenomena in vivo.

Transcranial Electric Stimulation for Precision Medicine: A Spatiomechanistic Framework

During recent years, non-invasive brain stimulation, including transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) in general, and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in particular, have created new hopes for treatment of neurological and psychiatric diseases. Despite promising primary results in some brain disorders, a more widespread application of tES is hindered by the unsolved question of determining optimum stimulation protocols to receive meaningful therapeutic effects. tES has a large parameter space including various montages and stimulation parameters. Moreover, inter- and intra-individual differences in responding to stimulation protocols have to be taken into account. These factors contribute to the complexity of selecting potentially effective protocols for each disorder, different clusters of each disorder, and even each single patient. Expanding knowledge in different dimensions of basic and clinical neuroscience could help researchers and clinicians to select potentially effective protocols based on tES modulatory mechanisms for future clinical studies. In this article, we propose a heuristic spatiomechanistic framework which contains nine levels to address tES effects on brain functions. Three levels refer to the spatial resolution (local, small-scale networks and large-scale networks) and three levels of tES modulatory effects based on its mechanisms of action (neurochemical, neuroelectrical and oscillatory modulations). At the group level, this framework could be helpful to enable an informed and systematic exploration of various possible protocols for targeting a brain disorder or its neuroscience-based clusters. Considering recent advances in exploration of neurodiversity at the individual level with different brain mapping technologies, the proposed framework might also be used in combination with personal data to design individualized protocols for tES in the context of precision medicine in the future.

A Neurophysiological Perspective on a Preventive Treatment against Schizophrenia Using Transcranial Electric Stimulation of the Corticothalamic Pathway

Schizophrenia patients are waiting for a treatment free of detrimental effects. Psychotic disorders are devastating mental illnesses associated with dysfunctional brain networks. Ongoing brain network gamma frequency (30–80 Hz) oscillations, naturally implicated in integrative function, are excessively amplified during hallucinations, in at-risk mental states for psychosis and first-episode psychosis. So, gamma oscillations represent a bioelectrical marker for cerebral network disorders with prognostic and therapeutic potential. They accompany sensorimotor and cognitive deficits already present in prodromal schizophrenia. Abnormally amplified gamma oscillations are reproduced in the corticothalamic systems of healthy humans and rodents after a single systemic administration, at a psychotomimetic dose, of the glutamate N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist ketamine. These translational ketamine models of prodromal schizophrenia are thus promising to work out a preventive noninvasive treatment against first-episode psychosis and chronic schizophrenia. In the present essay, transcranial electric stimulation (TES) is considered an appropriate preventive therapeutic modality because it can influence cognitive performance and neural oscillations. Here, I highlight clinical and experimental findings showing that, together, the corticothalamic pathway, the thalamus, and the glutamatergic synaptic transmission form an etiopathophysiological backbone for schizophrenia and represent a potential therapeutic target for preventive TES of dysfunctional brain networks in at-risk mental state patients against psychotic disorders.

Local entrainment of oscillatory activity induced by direct brain stimulation in humans

In a quest for direct evidence of oscillation entrainment, we analyzed intracerebral electroencephalographic recordings obtained during intracranial electrical stimulation in a cohort of three medication-resistant epilepsy patients tested pre-surgically. Spectral analyses of non-epileptogenic cerebral sites stimulated directly with high frequency electrical bursts yielded episodic local enhancements of frequency-specific rhythmic activity, phase-locked to each individual pulse. These outcomes reveal an entrainment of physiological oscillatory activity within a frequency band dictated by the rhythm of the stimulation source. Our results support future uses of rhythmic stimulation to elucidate the causal contributions of synchrony to specific aspects of human cognition and to further develop the therapeutic manipulation of dysfunctional rhythmic activity subtending the symptoms of some neuropsychiatric conditions.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation Attenuates Neuronal Adaptation

We previously showed that brief application of 2 mA (peak-to-peak) transcranial currents alternating at 10 Hz significantly reduces motion adaptation in humans. This is but one of many behavioral studies showing that weak currents applied to the scalp modulate neural processing. Transcranial stimulation has been shown to improve perception, learning, and a range of clinical symptoms. Few studies, however, have measured the neural consequences of transcranial current stimulation. We capitalized on the strong link between motion perception and neural activity in the middle temporal (MT) area of the macaque monkey to study the neural mechanisms that underlie the behavioral consequences of transcranial alternating current stimulation. First, we observed that 2 mA currents generated substantial intracranial fields, which were much stronger in the stimulated hemisphere (0.12 V/m) than on the opposite side of the brain (0.03 V/m). Second, we found that brief application of transcranial alternating current stimulation at 10 Hz reduced spike-frequency adaptation of MT neurons and led to a broadband increase in the power spectrum of local field potentials. Together, these findings provide a direct demonstration that weak electric fields applied to the scalp significantly affect neural processing in the primate brain and that this includes a hitherto unknown mechanism that attenuates sensory adaptation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Transcranial stimulation has been claimed to improve perception, learning, and a range of clinical symptoms. Little is known, however, how transcranial current stimulation generates such effects, and the search for better stimulation protocols proceeds largely by trial and error. We investigated, for the first time, the neural consequences of stimulation in the monkey brain. We found that even brief application of alternating current stimulation reduced the effects of adaptation on single-neuron firing rates and local field potentials; this mechanistic insight explains previous behavioral findings and suggests a novel way to modulate neural information processing using transcranial currents. In addition, by developing an animal model to help understand transcranial stimulation, this study will aid the rational design of stimulation protocols for the treatment of mental illnesses, and the improvement of perception and learning.

Effects of cerebellar transcranial alternating current stimulation on motor cortex excitability and motor function

The cerebellum regulates several motor functions through two main mechanisms, the cerebellum-brain inhibition (CBI) and the motor surround inhibition (MSI). Although the exact cerebellar structures and functions involved in such processes are partially known, Purkinje cells (PC) and their surrounding interneuronal networks may play a pivotal role concerning CBI and MSI. Cerebellar transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) has been proven to shape specific cerebellar components in a feasible, safe, effective, and non-invasive manner. The aim of our study was to characterize the cerebellar structures and functions subtending CBI and MSI using a tACS approach. Fifteen healthy individuals underwent a cerebellar tACS protocol at 10, 50, and 300 Hz, or a sham-tACS over the right cerebellar hemisphere. We measured the tACS aftereffects on motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, CBI induced by tACS (tiCBI) at different frequencies, MSI, and hand motor task performance. None of the participants had any side effect related to tACS. After 50-Hz tACS, we observed a clear tiCBI-50Hz weakening (about +30%, p < 0.001) paralleled by a MEP amplitude increase (about +30%, p = 0.001) and a reduction of the time required to complete some motor task (about -20%, p = 0.01), lasting up to 30 min. The 300-Hz tACS induced a selective, specific tiCBI-300Hz and tiCBI-50Hz modulation in surrounding muscles (about -15%, p = 0.01) and MSI potentiation (about +40%, p < 0.001). The 10-Hz tACS and the sham-tACS were ineffective (p > 0.6). Our preliminary data suggest that PC may represent the last mediator of tiCBI and that the surrounding interneuronal network may have an important role in updating MSI, tiCBI, and M1 excitability during tonic muscle contraction, by acting onto the PC. The knowledge of these neurophysiological issues offers new cues to design innovative, non-invasive neuromodulation protocols to shape cerebellar-cerebral functions.

Electrical Stimulation of the Human Cerebral Cortex by Extracranial Muscle Activity: Effect Quantification With Intracranial EEG and FEM Simulations

OBJECTIVE

Electric fields (EF) of approx. 0.2 V/m have been shown to be sufficiently strong to both modulate neuronal activity in the cerebral cortex and have measurable effects on cognitive performance. We hypothesized that the EF caused by the electrical activity of extracranial muscles during natural chewing may reach similar strength in the cerebral cortex and hence might act as an endogenous modality of brain stimulation. Here, we present first steps toward validating this hypothesis.

METHODS

Using a realistic volume conductor head model of an epilepsy patient having undergone intracranial electrode placement and utilizing simultaneous intracranial and extracranial electrical recordings during chewing, we derive predictions about the chewing-related cortical EF strength to be expected in healthy individuals.

RESULTS

We find that in the region of the temporal poles, the expected EF strength may reach amplitudes in the order of 0.1-1 V/m.

CONCLUSION

The cortical EF caused by natural chewing could be large enough to modulate ongoing neural activity in the cerebral cortex and influence cognitive performance.

SIGNIFICANCE

The present study lends first support for the assumption that extracranial muscle activity might represent an endogenous source of electrical brain stimulation. This offers a new potential explanation for the puzzling effects of gum chewing on cognition, which have been repeatedly reported in the literature.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation: A Potential Risk for Genetic Generalized Epilepsy Patients (Study Case)

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a re-emergent neuromodulation technique that consists in the external application of oscillating electrical currents that induces changes in cortical excitability. We present the case of a 16-year-old female with pharmaco-resistant juvenile myoclonic epilepsy to 3 antiepileptic’s drugs characterized by 4 myoclonic and 20 absence seizures monthly. She received tACS at 1 mA at 3 Hz pulse train during 60 min over Fp1–Fp2 (10–20 EEG international system position) during 4 consecutive days using an Endeavor™ IOM Systems device^® (Natus Medical Incorporated, Middleton, WI, USA). At the 1-month follow-up, she reported a 75% increase in seizures frequency (only myoclonic and tonic–clonic events) and developed a 24-h myoclonic status epilepticus that resolved with oral clonazepam and intravenous valproate. At the 2-month follow-up, the patient reported a 15-day seizure-free period.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation at Beta Frequency: Lack of Immediate Effects on Excitation and Interhemispheric Inhibition of the Human Motor Cortex

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a form of noninvasive brain stimulation and is capable of influencing brain oscillations and cortical networks. In humans, the endogenous oscillation frequency in sensorimotor areas peaks at 20 Hz. This beta-band typically occurs during maintenance of tonic motor output and seems to play a role in interhemispheric coordination of movements. Previous studies showed that tACS applied in specific frequency bands over primary motor cortex (M1) or the visual cortex modulates cortical excitability within the stimulated hemisphere. However, the particular impact remains controversial because effects of tACS were shown to be frequency, duration and location specific. Furthermore, the potential of tACS to modulate cortical interhemispheric processing, like interhemispheric inhibition (IHI), remains elusive. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive and well-tolerated method of directly activating neurons in superficial areas of the human brain and thereby a useful tool for evaluating the functional state of motor pathways. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the immediate effect of 10 min tACS in the β-frequency band (20 Hz) over left M1 on IHI between M1s in 19 young, healthy, right-handed participants. A series of TMS measurements (motor evoked potential (MEP) size, resting motor threshold (RMT), IHI from left to right M1 and vice versa) was performed before and immediately after tACS or sham using a double-blinded, cross-over design. We did not find any significant tACS-induced modulations of intracortical excitation (as assessed by MEP size and RMT) and/or IHI. These results indicate that 10 min of 20 Hz tACS over left M1 seems incapable of modulating immediate brain activity or inhibition. Further studies are needed to elucidate potential aftereffects of 20 Hz tACS as well as frequency-specific effects of tACS on intracortical excitation and IHI.

Animal models of transcranial direct current stimulation: Methods and mechanisms

The objective of this review is to summarize the contribution of animal research using direct current stimulation (DCS) to our understanding of the physiological effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). We comprehensively address experimental methodology in animal studies, broadly classified as: (1) transcranial stimulation; (2) direct cortical stimulation in vivo and (3) in vitro models. In each case advantages and disadvantages for translational research are discussed including dose translation and the overarching "quasi-uniform" assumption, which underpins translational relevance in all animal models of tDCS. Terminology such as anode, cathode, inward current, outward current, current density, electric field, and uniform are defined. Though we put key animal experiments spanning decades in perspective, our goal is not simply an exhaustive cataloging of relevant animal studies, but rather to put them in context of ongoing efforts to improve tDCS. Cellular targets, including excitatory neuronal somas, dendrites, axons, interneurons, glial cells, and endothelial cells are considered. We emphasize neurons are always depolarized and hyperpolarized such that effects of DCS on neuronal excitability can only be evaluated within subcellular regions of the neuron. Findings from animal studies on the effects of DCS on plasticity (LTP/LTD) and network oscillations are reviewed extensively. Any endogenous phenomena dependent on membrane potential changes are, in theory, susceptible to modulation by DCS. The relevance of morphological changes (galvanotropy) to tDCS is also considered, as we suggest microscopic migration of axon terminals or dendritic spines may be relevant during tDCS. A majority of clinical studies using tDCS employ a simplistic dose strategy where excitability is singularly increased or decreased under the anode and cathode, respectively. We discuss how this strategy, itself based on classic animal studies, cannot account for the complexity of normal and pathological brain function, and how recent studies have already indicated more sophisticated approaches are necessary. One tDCS theory regarding "functional targeting" suggests the specificity of tDCS effects are possible by modulating ongoing function (plasticity). Use of animal models of disease are summarized including pain, movement disorders, stroke, and epilepsy.

Phase and Frequency-Dependent Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on Motor Cortical Excitability

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) can entrain ongoing brain oscillations and modulate the motor system in a frequency-dependent manner. Recent animal studies have demonstrated that the phase of a sinusoidal current also has an important role in modulation of neuronal activity. However, the phase effects of tACS on the human motor system are largely unknown. Here, we systematically investigated the effects of tACS phase and frequency on the primary motor cortex (M1) by using motor evoked potentials (MEPs) with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). First, we compared the phase effects (90°, 180°, 270° or 360°) of 10 and 20 Hz tACS on MEPs. The 20 Hz tACS significantly increased M1 excitability compared with the 10 Hz tACS at 90° phase only. Second, we studied the 90° phase effect on MEPs at different tACS frequencies (5, 10, 20 or 40 Hz). The 20 vs. 10 Hz difference was again observed, but the 90° phase in 5 and 40 Hz tACS did not influence M1 excitability. Third, the 90° phase effects of 10 and 20 Hz tACS were compared with sham stimulation. The 90° phase of 20 Hz tACS enhanced MEP amplitudes compared with sham stimulation, but there was no significant effect of 10 Hz tACS. Taken together, we assume that the differential 90° phase effects on 20 Hz and 10 Hz tACS can be attributed to the neural synchronization modulated by tACS. Our results further underline that phase and frequency are the important factors in the effects of tACS on M1 excitability.

Direct Current Stimulation Alters Neuronal Input/Output Function

BACKGROUND

Direct current stimulation (DCS) affects both neuronal firing rate and synaptic efficacy. The neuronal input/output (I/O) function determines the likelihood that a neuron elicits an action potential in response to synaptic input of a given strength. Changes of the neuronal I/O function by DCS may underlie previous observations in animal models and human testing, yet have not been directly assessed.

OBJECTIVE

Test if the neuronal input/output function is affected by DCS METHODS: Using rat hippocampal brain slices and computational modeling, we provide evidence for how DCS modulates the neuronal I/O function.

RESULTS

We show for the first time that DCS modulates the likelihood of neuronal firing for a given and fixed synaptic input. Opposing polarization of soma and dendrite may have a synergistic effect for anodal stimulation, increasing the driving force of synaptic activity while simultaneously increasing spiking probability at the soma. For cathodal stimulation, however, the opposing effects tend to cancel. This results in an asymmetry in the strength of the effects of stimulation for opposite polarities.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results may explain the asymmetries observed in acute and long term effects of transcranial direct current stimulation.

R, Milham MP, Mehta AD, Schroeder CE. Spatiotemporal structure of intracranial electric fields induced by transcranial electric stimulation in humans and nonhuman primates

Transcranial electric stimulation (TES) is an emerging technique, developed to non-invasively modulate brain function. However, the spatiotemporal distribution of the intracranial electric fields induced by TES remains poorly understood. In particular, it is unclear how much current actually reaches the brain, and how it distributes across the brain. Lack of this basic information precludes a firm mechanistic understanding of TES effects. In this study we directly measure the spatial and temporal characteristics of the electric field generated by TES using stereotactic EEG (s-EEG) electrode arrays implanted in cebus monkeys and surgical epilepsy patients. We found a small frequency dependent decrease (10%) in magnitudes of TES induced potentials and negligible phase shifts over space. Electric field strengths were strongest in superficial brain regions with maximum values of about 0.5 mV/mm. Our results provide crucial information of the underlying biophysics in TES applications in humans and the optimization and design of TES stimulation protocols. In addition, our findings have broad implications concerning electric field propagation in non-invasive recording techniques such as EEG/MEG.

Phase Dependency of the Human Primary Motor Cortex and Cholinergic Inhibition Cancelation During Beta tACS

The human motor cortex has a tendency to resonant activity at about 20 Hz so stimulation should more readily entrain neuronal populations at this frequency. We investigated whether and how different interneuronal circuits contribute to such resonance by using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) during transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) at motor (20 Hz) and a nonmotor resonance frequency (7 Hz). We tested different TMS interneuronal protocols and triggered TMS pulses at different tACS phases. The effect of cholinergic short-latency afferent inhibition (SAI) was abolished by 20 Hz tACS, linking cortical beta activity to sensorimotor integration. However, this effect occurred regardless of the tACS phase. In contrast, 20 Hz tACS selectively modulated MEP size according to the phase of tACS during single pulse, GABAAergic short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and glutamatergic intracortical facilitation (ICF). For SICI this phase effect was more marked during 20 Hz stimulation. Phase modulation of SICI also depended on whether or not spontaneous beta activity occurred at ~20 Hz, supporting an interaction effect between tACS and underlying circuit resonances. The present study provides in vivo evidence linking cortical beta activity to sensorimotor integration, and for beta oscillations in motor cortex being promoted by resonance in GABAAergic interneuronal circuits.

Feedback-Controlled Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation Reveals a Functional Role of Sleep Spindles in Motor Memory Consolidation

Transient episodes of brain oscillations are a common feature of both the waking and the sleeping brain. Sleep spindles represent a prominent example of a poorly understood transient brain oscillation that is impaired in disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. However, the causal role of these bouts of thalamo-cortical oscillations remains unknown. Demonstrating a functional role of sleep spindles in cognitive processes has, so far, been hindered by the lack of a tool to target transient brain oscillations in real time. Here, we show, for the first time, selective enhancement of sleep spindles with non-invasive brain stimulation in humans. We developed a system that detects sleep spindles in real time and applies oscillatory stimulation. Our stimulation selectively enhanced spindle activity as determined by increased sigma activity after transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) application. This targeted modulation caused significant enhancement of motor memory consolidation that correlated with the stimulation-induced change in fast spindle activity. Strikingly, we found a similar correlation between motor memory and spindle characteristics during the sham night for the same spindle frequencies and electrode locations. Therefore, our results directly demonstrate a functional relationship between oscillatory spindle activity and cognition.

The possible consequences for cognitive functions of external electric fields at power line frequency on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons

The possible effects on cognitive processes of external electric fields, such as those generated by power line pillars and household appliances are of increasing public concern. They are difficult to study experimentally, and the relatively scarce and contradictory evidence make it difficult to clearly assess these effects. In this study, we investigate how, why and to what extent external perturbations of the intrinsic neuronal activity, such as those that can be caused by generation, transmission and use of electrical energy can affect neuronal activity during cognitive processes. For this purpose, we used a morphologically and biophysically realistic three-dimensional model of CA1 pyramidal neurons. The simulation findings suggest that an electric field oscillating at power lines frequency, and environmentally measured strength, can significantly alter both the average firing rate and temporal spike distribution properties of a hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neuron. This effect strongly depends on the specific and instantaneous relative spatial location of the neuron with respect to the field, and on the synaptic input properties. The model makes experimentally testable predictions on the possible functional consequences for normal hippocampal functions such as object recognition and spatial navigation. The results suggest that, although EF effects on cognitive processes may be difficult to occur in everyday life, their functional consequences deserve some consideration, especially when they constitute a systematic presence in living environments.

Electrical stimulation of the frontal cortex enhances slow-frequency EEG activity and sleepiness

Our aim was to enhance the spontaneous slow-frequency EEG activity during the resting state using oscillating transcranial direct currents (tDCS) with a stimulation frequency that resembles the spontaneous oscillations of sleep onset. Accordingly, in this preliminary study, we assessed EEG after-effects of a frontal oscillatory tDCS with different frequency (0.8 vs. 5 Hz) and polarity (anodal, cathodal, and sham). Two single-blind experiments compared the after effects on the resting EEG of oscillatory tDCS [Exp. 1=0.8 Hz, 10 subjects (26.2 ± 2.5 years); Exp. 2=5 Hz, 10 subjects (27.4 ± 2.4 years)] by manipulating its polarity. EEG signals recorded (28 scalp derivations) before and after stimulation [slow oscillations (0.5-1 Hz), delta (1-4 Hz), theta (5-7 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), beta 1 (13-15 Hz) and beta 2 (16-24 Hz)] were compared between conditions as a function of polarity (anodal vs. cathodal vs. sham) and frequency of stimulation (0.8 vs. 5 Hz). We found a significant relative enhancement of the delta activity after the anodal tDCS at 5 Hz compared to that at 0.8 Hz. This increase, even though not reaching the statistical significance compared to sham, is concomitant to a significant increase of subjective sleepiness, as assessed by a visual analog scale. These two phenomena are linearly related with a regional specificity, correlations being restricted to cortical areas perifocal to the stimulation site. We have shown that a frontal oscillating anodal tDCS at 5 Hz results in an effective change of both subjective sleepiness and spontaneous slow-frequency EEG activity. These changes are critically associated to both stimulation polarity (anodal) and frequency (5 Hz). However, evidence of frequency-dependence seems more unequivocal than evidence of polarity-dependence.