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Lustenberger C, Patel YA, Alagapan S, Page JM, Price B, Boyle MR, Fröhlich F. High-density EEG characterization of brain responses to auditory rhythmic stimuli during wakefulness and NREM sleep. Neuroimage 2017; 169:57-68. [PMID: 29217404 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Auditory rhythmic sensory stimulation modulates brain oscillations by increasing phase-locking to the temporal structure of the stimuli and by increasing the power of specific frequency bands, resulting in Auditory Steady State Responses (ASSR). The ASSR is altered in different diseases of the central nervous system such as schizophrenia. However, in order to use the ASSR as biological markers for disease states, it needs to be understood how different vigilance states and underlying brain activity affect the ASSR. Here, we compared the effects of auditory rhythmic stimuli on EEG brain activity during wake and NREM sleep, investigated the influence of the presence of dominant sleep rhythms on the ASSR, and delineated the topographical distribution of these modulations. Participants (14 healthy males, 20-33 years) completed on the same day a 60 min nap session and two 30 min wakefulness sessions (before and after the nap). During these sessions, amplitude modulated (AM) white noise auditory stimuli at different frequencies were applied. High-density EEG was continuously recorded and time-frequency analyses were performed to assess ASSR during wakefulness and NREM periods. Our analysis revealed that depending on the electrode location, stimulation frequency applied and window/frequencies analysed the ASSR was significantly modulated by sleep pressure (before and after sleep), vigilance state (wake vs. NREM sleep), and the presence of slow wave activity and sleep spindles. Furthermore, AM stimuli increased spindle activity during NREM sleep but not during wakefulness. Thus, (1) electrode location, sleep history, vigilance state and ongoing brain activity needs to be carefully considered when investigating ASSR and (2) auditory rhythmic stimuli during sleep might represent a powerful tool to boost sleep spindles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Lustenberger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Yogi A Patel
- Bioengineering Graduate Program, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Sankaraleengam Alagapan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Jessica M Page
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Betsy Price
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Michael R Boyle
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - Flavio Fröhlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Carolina Center for Neurostimulation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Lustenberger C, Boyle MR, Alagapan S, Mellin JM, Vaughn BV, Fröhlich F. Feedback-Controlled Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation Reveals a Functional Role of Sleep Spindles in Motor Memory Consolidation. Curr Biol 2016; 26:2127-36. [PMID: 27476602 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.06.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Transient episodes of brain oscillations are a common feature of both the waking and the sleeping brain. Sleep spindles represent a prominent example of a poorly understood transient brain oscillation that is impaired in disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. However, the causal role of these bouts of thalamo-cortical oscillations remains unknown. Demonstrating a functional role of sleep spindles in cognitive processes has, so far, been hindered by the lack of a tool to target transient brain oscillations in real time. Here, we show, for the first time, selective enhancement of sleep spindles with non-invasive brain stimulation in humans. We developed a system that detects sleep spindles in real time and applies oscillatory stimulation. Our stimulation selectively enhanced spindle activity as determined by increased sigma activity after transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) application. This targeted modulation caused significant enhancement of motor memory consolidation that correlated with the stimulation-induced change in fast spindle activity. Strikingly, we found a similar correlation between motor memory and spindle characteristics during the sham night for the same spindle frequencies and electrode locations. Therefore, our results directly demonstrate a functional relationship between oscillatory spindle activity and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Lustenberger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Michael R Boyle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - Sankaraleengam Alagapan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Juliann M Mellin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Bradley V Vaughn
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - Flavio Fröhlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Sellers KK, Mellin JM, Lustenberger CM, Boyle MR, Lee WH, Peterchev AV, Fröhlich F. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of frontal cortex decreases performance on the WAIS-IV intelligence test. Behav Brain Res 2015; 290:32-44. [PMID: 25934490 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) modulates excitability of motor cortex. However, there is conflicting evidence about the efficacy of this non-invasive brain stimulation modality to modulate performance on cognitive tasks. Previous work has tested the effect of tDCS on specific facets of cognition and executive processing. However, no randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled study has looked at the effects of tDCS on a comprehensive battery of cognitive processes. The objective of this study was to test if tDCS had an effect on performance on a comprehensive assay of cognitive processes, a standardized intelligence quotient (IQ) test. The study consisted of two substudies and followed a double-blind, between-subjects, sham-controlled design. In total, 41 healthy adult participants were included in the final analysis. These participants completed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) as a baseline measure. At least one week later, participants in substudy 1 received either bilateral tDCS (anodes over both F4 and F3, cathode over Cz, 2 mA at each anode for 20 min) or active sham tDCS (2 mA for 40 s), and participants in substudy 2 received either right or left tDCS (anode over either F4 or F3, cathode over Cz, 2 mA for 20 min). In both studies, the WAIS-IV was immediately administered following stimulation to assess for performance differences induced by bilateral and unilateral tDCS. Compared to sham stimulation, right, left, and bilateral tDCS reduced improvement between sessions on Full Scale IQ and the Perceptual Reasoning Index. This demonstration that frontal tDCS selectively degraded improvement on specific metrics of the WAIS-IV raises important questions about the often proposed role of tDCS in cognitive enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin K Sellers
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599
| | - Juliann M Mellin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599
| | | | - Michael R Boyle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599
| | - Won Hee Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York NY 10029
| | - Angel V Peterchev
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham NC 27710; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham NC 27710; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham NC 27710
| | - Flavio Fröhlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill NC 27599.
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Lustenberger C, Boyle MR, Foulser AA, Mellin JM, Fröhlich F. Functional role of frontal alpha oscillations in creativity. Cortex 2015; 67:74-82. [PMID: 25913062 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Revised: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Creativity, the ability to produce innovative ideas, is a key higher-order cognitive function that is poorly understood. At the level of macroscopic cortical network dynamics, recent electroencephalography (EEG) data suggests that cortical oscillations in the alpha frequency band (8-12 Hz) are correlated with creative thinking. However, whether alpha oscillations play a functional role in creativity has remained unknown. Here we show that creativity is increased by enhancing alpha power using 10 Hz transcranial alternating current stimulation (10 Hz-tACS) of the frontal cortex. In a study of 20 healthy participants with a randomized, balanced cross-over design, we found a significant improvement of 7.4% in the Creativity Index measured by the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT), a comprehensive and most frequently used assay of creative potential and strengths. In a second similar study with 20 subjects, 40 Hz-tACS was used instead of 10 Hz-tACS to rule out a general "electrical stimulation" effect. No significant change in the Creativity Index was found for such frontal 40 Hz stimulation. Our results suggest that alpha activity in frontal brain areas is selectively involved in creativity; this enhancement represents the first demonstration of specific neuronal dynamics that drive creativity and can be modulated by non-invasive brain stimulation. Our findings agree with the model that alpha recruitment increases with internal processing demands and is involved in inhibitory top-down control, which is an important requirement for creative ideation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Lustenberger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Michael R Boyle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - A Alban Foulser
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Juliann M Mellin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Flavio Fröhlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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Schmidt SL, Iyengar AK, Foulser AA, Boyle MR, Fröhlich F. Endogenous cortical oscillations constrain neuromodulation by weak electric fields. Brain Stimul 2014; 7:878-89. [PMID: 25129402 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2014.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation modality that may modulate cognition by enhancing endogenous neocortical oscillations by application of sine-wave electric fields. Yet, the role of endogenous network activity in enabling and shaping the effects of tACS has remained unclear. OBJECTIVE We combined optogenetic stimulation and multichannel slice electrophysiology to elucidate how the effect of a weak sine-wave electric field depends on the ongoing cortical oscillatory activity. We hypothesized that endogenous cortical oscillations constrain neuromodulation by tACS. METHODS We studied the effect of weak sine-wave electric fields on oscillatory activity in mouse neocortical slices. Optogenetic control of the network activity enabled the generation of in vivo-like cortical oscillations for studying the temporal relationship between network activity and sine-wave electric field stimulation. RESULTS Weak electric fields enhanced endogenous oscillations but failed to induce a frequency shift of the ongoing oscillation for stimulation frequencies that were not matched to the endogenous oscillation. This constraint on the effect of electric field stimulation imposed by endogenous network dynamics was limited to the case of weak electric fields targeting in vivo-like network dynamics. Together, these results suggest that the key mechanism of tACS may be enhancing, but not overriding, intrinsic network dynamics. CONCLUSION Our results contribute to understanding the inconsistent tACS results from human studies and propose that stimulation precisely adjusted in frequency to the endogenous oscillations is key to rational design of non-invasive brain stimulation paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen L Schmidt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Apoorva K Iyengar
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - A Alban Foulser
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Michael R Boyle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Flavio Fröhlich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Taborsky GJ, Dunning BE, Havel PJ, Ahren B, Kowalyk S, Boyle MR, Verchere CB, Baskin DG, Mundinger TO. The canine sympathetic neuropeptide galanin: a neurotransmitter in pancreas, a neuromodulator in liver. Horm Metab Res 1999; 31:351-4. [PMID: 10422734 DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-978752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Our laboratory has investigated the role of the neuropeptide galanin in the sympathetic neural control of both the canine endocrine pancreas and liver. Galanin mRNA and peptide were found in the neuronal cell bodies of the celiac ganglion, which projects fibers to both organs. Galanin fibers formed dense networks around the islets. Galanin was released from these nerves and the amount released appeared sufficient to markedly inhibit basal insulin secretion. We therefore propose that galanin is a sympathetic neurotransmitter in canine endocrine pancreas. Galanin was also found in hepatic nerves usually co-localized with tyrosine hydroxylase, a sympathetic marker. Further, intraportal administration of the sympathetic neurotoxin, 6-hydroxydopamine, abolished galanin staining in the hepatic parenchyma. We evaluated the role of galanin in mediating the actions of sympathetic nerves to increase hepatic glucose production and decrease hepatic arterial conductance. Local infusion of synthetic galanin had little effect by itself, but it did potentiate the action of norepinephrine to stimulate hepatic glucose production, demonstrating a neuromodulatory action. In contrast, galanin had no effect on hepatic arterial blood flow. We therefore propose that in the liver galanin functions as a neuromodulator of norepinephrine's metabolic action.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Taborsky
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nutrition, Seattle Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System and University of Washington 98108, USA.
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Abstract
Stimulation of canine hepatic nerves releases the neuropeptide galanin from the liver; therefore, galanin may be a sympathetic neurotransmitter in the dog liver. To test this hypothesis, we used immunocytochemistry to determine if galanin is localized in hepatic sympathetic nerves and we used hepatic sympathetic denervation to verify such localization. Liver sections from dogs were immunostained for both galanin and the sympathetic enzyme marker tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Galanin-like immunoreactivity (GALIR) was colocalized with TH in many axons of nerve trunks as well as individual nerve fibers located both in the stroma of hepatic blood vessels and in the liver parenchyma. Neither galanin- nor TH-positive cell bodies were observed. Intraportal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) infusion, a treatment that selectively destroys hepatic adrenergic nerve terminals, abolished the GALIR staining in parenchymal neurons but only moderately diminished the GALIR staining in the nerve fibers around blood vessels. To confirm that 6-OHDA pretreatment proportionally depleted galanin and norepinephrine in the liver, we measured both the liver content and the hepatic nerve-stimulated spillover of galanin and norepinephrine from the liver. Pretreatment with 6-OHDA reduced the content and spillover of both galanin and norepinephrine by > 90%. Together, these results indicate that galanin in dog liver is primarily colocalized with norepinephrine in sympathetic nerves and may therefore function as a hepatic sympathetic neurotransmitter.
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Affiliation(s)
- T O Mundinger
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle 98195, USA
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Abstract
To investigate the potential for neural regulation of liver function, we sought to determine whether hepatic sympathetic nerves are activated during stress. Hepatic norepinephrine spillover (HNESO) was measured in halothane-anesthetized dogs before, during and after glucopenia, hypoxia and hemorrhage. HNESO increased during 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG, 600 mg/kg plus 13.5 mg/kg/min, IV)-induced glucopenia from a baseline of 9 +/- 3 ng/min to 83 +/- 24 ng/min (delta = + 74 +/- 23 ng/min, p < 0.01). During hypoxia (partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood = 23 +/- 2 mmHg), HNESO increased by 142 +/- 47 ng/min (p < 0.025), and HNESO increased by 84 +/- 22 ng/min (p < 0.01) during hemorrhage (mean arterial blood pressure = 40 +/- 1 mmHg), suggesting activation of hepatic sympathetic nerves during all three stresses. To validate the use of HNESO as an index of hepatic sympathetic nerve activity, we repeated the stresses of hypoxia and hemorrhage in dogs following chemical sympathetic denervation of the liver induced by prior intraportal 6-hydroxy-dopamine infusion. Hepatic denervation reduced the HNESO responses to hypoxia and hemorrhage by more than 90%. In addition to hepatic neural responses to stress, the sympathetic responses of the adrenal medulla and of systemic sympathetic nerves were monitored using changes in the arterial concentration of epinephrine and norepinephrine, respectively. Arterial epinephrine and norepinephrine increased by varying degrees during all three stresses, suggesting general sympatho-adrenal activation. As expected, 6-hydroxydopamine pretreatment did not alter the epinephrine response to hypoxia or hemorrhage. The arterial norepinephrine responses to hypoxia and hemorrhage were modestly reduced in hepatically sympathectomized animals, suggesting a small hepatic contribution to the elevated arterial level of norepinephrine during these stresses. We conclude that: (1) the stresses of glucopenia, hypoxia and hemorrhage activate the sympathetic nerves of the liver and (2) HNESO is a valid index of hepatic sympathetic nerve activity. Finally, we speculate that such activation may influence liver function.
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Affiliation(s)
- T O Mundinger
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
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Abstract
To determine if dog galanin is a potent inhibitor of dog insulin secretion we determined its primary structure from its cloned cDNA, evaluated its expression in celiac ganglia and determined its effect on islet hormone secretion. The predicted amino acid sequence differs from the other known species of galanin by three to six amino acids in the C-terminal half of the molecule. In situ hybridization revealed the presence of dog progalanin mRNA in every neuronal cell body in the dog celiac ganglion. The predicted dog galanin peptide was synthesized and infused i.v. at 0.25, 2.5, 25 or 250 pmol/kg/min. It potently inhibited insulin secretion, less potently inhibited pancreatic somatostatin release and stimulated glucagon secretion, similar to the effects of porcine galanin in the dog. In summary, dog galanin is expressed in the neuronal cell bodies that innervate the pancreas and the sequence of the dog galanin preserves the potent insulin inhibitory part of the galanin molecule. These data support the hypothesis that galanin is a sympathetic neurotransmitter in dog pancreas.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Boyle
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle 98108
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Abstract
Ultradian rhythms of alternating cerebral dominance have been demonstrated in humans and other mammals during waking and sleep. Human studies have used the methods of psychological testing and electroencephalography (EEG) as measurements to identify the phase of this natural endogenous rhythm. The periodicity of this rhythm approximates 1.5-3 hours in awake humans. This cerebral rhythm is tightly coupled to another ultradian rhythm known as the nasal cycle, which is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, and is exhibited by greater airflow in one nostril, later switching to the other side. This paper correlates uninostril airflow with varying ratios of verbal/spatial performance in 23 right-handed males. Relatively greater cognitive ability in one hemisphere corresponds to unilateral forced nostril breathing in the contralateral nostril. Cognitive performance ratios can be influenced by forcibly altering the breathing pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Shannahoff-Khalsa
- Senior Staff Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, San Diego, California 92138
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Hughes RJ, Boyle MR, Brown RD, Taylor P, Insel PA. Characterization of coexisting alpha 1- and beta 2-adrenergic receptors on a cloned muscle cell line, BC3H-1. Mol Pharmacol 1982; 22:258-66. [PMID: 6128668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
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