Quality Improvement Goals for Acute Kidney Injury

Development and external validation of an acute kidney injury risk score for use in the general population

Background

Improving recognition of patients at increased risk of acute kidney injury (AKI) in the community may facilitate earlier detection and implementation of proactive prevention measures that mitigate the impact of AKI. The aim of this study was to develop and externally validate a practical risk score to predict the risk of AKI in either hospital or community settings using routinely collected data.

Methods

Routinely collected linked datasets from Tayside, Scotland, were used to develop the risk score and datasets from Kent in the UK and Alberta in Canada were used to externally validate it. AKI was defined using the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes serum creatinine–based criteria. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed with occurrence of AKI within 1 year as the dependent variable. Model performance was determined by assessing discrimination (C-statistic) and calibration.

Results

The risk score was developed in 273 450 patients from the Tayside region of Scotland and externally validated into two populations: 218 091 individuals from Kent, UK and 1 173 607 individuals from Alberta, Canada. Four variables were independent predictors for AKI by logistic regression: older age, lower baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate, diabetes and heart failure. A risk score including these four variables had good predictive performance, with a C-statistic of 0.80 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.80–0.81] in the development cohort and 0.71 (95% CI 0.70–0.72) in the Kent, UK external validation cohort and 0.76 (95% CI 0.75–0.76) in the Canadian validation cohort.

Conclusion

We have devised and externally validated a simple risk score from routinely collected data that can aid both primary and secondary care physicians in identifying patients at high risk of AKI.

Tubular injury and cell-cycle arrest biomarkers to predict acute kidney injury in noncritically ill children receiving aminoglycosides

Aim: NGAL, IL-18, KIM-1 as well as urinary TIMP2 and IGFBP7 and their mathematical product (TIMP2*IGFBP7) were evaluated for detecting pediatric aminoglycoside acute kidney injury (AG-AKI). Methods: In a prospective study, noncritically ill children received aminoglycosides (AG) ≥3 days. The area under the curve (AUC) for biomarkers to detect AKI was calculated by a) days before AKI onset; b) treatment days. Results: There were 113 AG episodes (68% febrile neutropenia). The AKI group had a higher proportion with febrile neutropenia. The AKI group had significantly lower NGAL 3 days before AKI, as patients with febrile neutropenia had a lower NGAL during AG treatment (p < 0.05). NGAL, IL-18 and TIMP2*IGFBP7 had AUC ≥0.73 at 3, 2 and 2 days before AKI onset. Conclusion: NGAL, IL-18 and TIMP2*IGFBP7 were modest early biomarkers of AG-AKI. Febrile neutropenia was associated with lower NGAL.

Proinflammatory P2Y14 receptor inhibition protects against ischemic acute kidney injury in mice

Ischemic acute kidney injury (AKI), a complication that frequently occurs in hospital settings, is often associated with hemodynamic compromise, sepsis, cardiac surgery, or exposure to nephrotoxins. Here, using a murine renal ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) model, we show that intercalated cells (ICs) rapidly adopted a proinflammatory phenotype after IRI. Wwe demonstrate that during the early phase of AKI either blockade of the proinflammatory P2Y14 receptor located on the apical membrane of ICs or ablation of the gene encoding the P2Y14 receptor in ICs (a) inhibited IRI-induced increase of chemokine expression in ICs, (b) reduced neutrophil and monocyte renal infiltration, (c) reduced the extent of kidney dysfunction, and (d) attenuated proximal tubule damage. These observations indicate that the P2Y14 receptor participates in the very first inflammatory steps associated with ischemic AKI. In addition, we show that the concentration of the P2Y14 receptor ligand UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc) was higher in urine samples from intensive care unit patients who developed AKI compared with patients without AKI. In particular, we observed a strong correlation between UDP-Glc concentration and the development of AKI in cardiac surgery patients. Our study identifies the UDP-Glc/P2Y14 receptor axis as a potential target for the prevention and/or attenuation of ischemic AKI.

Acute Kidney Injury: From Diagnosis to Prevention and Treatment Strategies

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is characterized by an acute decrease in renal function that can be multifactorial in its origin and is associated with complex pathophysiological mechanisms. In the short term, AKI is associated with an increased length of hospital stay, health care costs, and in-hospital mortality, and its impact extends into the long term, with AKI being associated with increased risks of cardiovascular events, progression to chronic kidney disease (CKD), and long-term mortality. Given the impact of the prognosis of AKI, it is important to recognize at-risk patients and improve preventive, diagnostic, and therapy strategies. The authors provide a comprehensive review on available diagnostic, preventive, and treatment strategies for AKI.

Community Health Care Quality Standards to Prevent Acute Kidney Injury and Its Consequences

As the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) increases, prevention strategies are needed across the health care continuum, which begins in the community. Recognizing this knowledge gap, the 22nd Acute Disease Quality Initiative (ADQI) was tasked to discuss the evidence for quality-of-care measurement and care processes to prevent AKI and its consequences in the community. Using a modified Delphi process, an international and interdisciplinary group provided a framework to identify and monitor patients with AKI in the community. The recommendations propose that risk stratification involve both susceptibilities (eg, chronic kidney disease) and exposures (eg, coronary angiography), with the latter triggering a Kidney Health Assessment. This assessment should include blood pressure, serum creatinine, and urine dipstick, followed by a Kidney Health Response to prevent AKI that encompasses cessation of unnecessary medications, minimization of nephrotoxins, patient education, and ongoing monitoring until the exposure resolves. These recommendations give community health care providers and health systems a starting point for quality improvement initiatives to prevent AKI and its consequences in the community.

Acute kidney injury: Challenges and opportunities

Community-acquired acute kidney injury (CA-AKI) can be a devastating diagnosis for any patient and can increase mortality during hospitalization. There can be long-term consequences for those who survive the initial insult. This article discusses CA-AKI and its implications for APRNs.

Preventing CKD in Developed Countries

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an important public health concern in developed countries because of both the number of people affected and the high cost of care when prevention strategies are not effectively implemented. Prevention should start at the governance level with the institution of multisectoral polices supporting sustainable development goals and ensuring safe and healthy environments. Primordial prevention of CKD can be achieved through implementation of measures to ensure healthy fetal (kidney) development. Public health strategies to prevent diabetes, hypertension, and obesity as risk factors for CKD are important. These approaches are cost-effective and reduce the overall noncommunicable disease burden. Strategies to prevent nontraditional CKD risk factors, including nephrotoxin exposure, kidney stones, infections, environmental exposures, and acute kidney injury (AKI), need to be tailored to local needs and epidemiology. Early diagnosis and treatment of CKD risk factors such as diabetes, obesity, and hypertension are key for primary prevention of CKD. CKD tends to occur more frequently and to progress more rapidly among indigenous, minority, and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations. Special attention is required to meet the CKD prevention needs of these populations. Effective secondary prevention of CKD relies on screening of individuals at risk to detect and treat CKD early, using established and emerging strategies. Within high-income countries, barriers to accessing effective CKD therapies must be recognized, and public health strategies must be developed to overcome these obstacles, including training and support at the primary care level to identify individuals at risk of CKD, and appropriately implement clinical practice guidelines.

Report of the first AKI Round Table meeting: an initiative of the ESICM AKI Section

PURPOSE

Critical Care Nephrology is an emerging sub-specialty of Critical Care. Despite increasing awareness about the serious impact of acute kidney injury (AKI) and renal replacement therapy (RRT), important knowledge gaps persist. This report represents a summary of a 1-day meeting of the AKI section of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) identifying priorities for future AKI research.

METHODS

International Members of the AKI section of the ESICM were selected and allocated to one of three subgroups: "AKI diagnosis and evaluation", "Medical management of AKI" and "Renal Replacement Therapy for AKI." Using a modified Delphi methodology, each group identified knowledge gaps and developed potential proposals for future collaborative research.

RESULTS

The following key research projects were developed: Systematic reviews: (a) epidemiology of AKI with stratification by patient cohorts and diagnostic criteria; (b) role of higher blood pressure targets in patients with hypertension admitted to the Intensive Care Unit, and (c) specific clearance characteristics of different modalities of continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT). Observational studies: (a) epidemiology of critically ill patients according to AKI duration, and (b) current clinical practice of CRRT. Intervention studies:( a) Comparison of different blood pressure targets in critically ill patients with hypertension, and (b) comparison of clearance of solutes with various molecular weights between different CRRT modalities.

CONCLUSION

Consensus was reached on a future research agenda for the AKI section of the ESICM.

Short, and long-term mortality among cardiac intensive care unit patients started on continuous renal replacement therapy

PURPOSE

Patients requiring continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) are at high risk of death. Predictors of hospital mortality and post-discharge survival in cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) patients requiring CRRT have not been reported.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Retrospective review of 198 CICU patients undergoing CRRT from 2006 to 2015. Multivariable regression identified predictors of hospital mortality and Cox proportional-hazards identified predictors of post-discharge mortality among hospital survivors.

RESULTS

The indication for CRRT was volume overload in 129 (65%) and metabolic abnormalities in 76 (38%). 105 (53%) subjects died in hospital, with 22% dialysis-free hospital survival. Cardiogenic shock was present in 159 (80%) subjects; 150 (76%) subjects received vasopressors and 101 (51%) subjects required mechanical ventilation. Hospital mortality was similar in cardiogenic and non-cardiogenic causes of CICU admission. Predictors of hospital death included semi-quantitative RV function, Braden score, VIS, and PaO2/FIO2 ratio. Median post-discharge Kaplan-Meier survival was 1.9 years. Predictors of post-hospital death included age, VIS, diabetes, Braden score, semi-quantitative RV function, prior heart failure, and dialysis dependence. The indication for CRRT was not predictive of survival.

CONCLUSION

Mortality is high among CICU patients requiring CRRT, and is predicted by the Braden score, RV dysfunction, respiratory failure and vasopressor load.

Temporal trends, predictors, and outcomes of acute kidney injury and hemodialysis use in acute myocardial infarction-related cardiogenic shock

Background

There are limited data on acute kidney injury (AKI) complicating acute myocardial infarction with cardiogenic shock (AMI-CS). This study sought to evaluate 15-year national prevalence, temporal trends and outcomes of AKI with no need for hemodialysis (AKI-ND) and requiring hemodialysis (AKI-D) following AMI-CS.

Methods

This was a retrospective cohort study from 2000–2014 from the National Inpatient Sample (20% stratified sample of all community hospitals in the United States). Adult patients (>18 years) admitted with a primary diagnosis of AMI and secondary diagnosis of CS were included. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality in cohorts with no AKI, AKI-ND, and AKI-D. Secondary outcomes included predictors, resource utilization and disposition.

Results

During this 15-year period, 440,257 admissions for AMI-CS were included, with AKI in 155,610 (35.3%) and hemodialysis use in 14,950 (3.4%). Older age, black race, non-private insurance, higher comorbidity, organ failure, and use of cardiac and non-cardiac organ support were associated with the AKI development and hemodialysis use. There was a 2.6-fold higher adjusted risk of developing AKI in 2014 compared to 2000. Presence of AKI-ND and AKI-D was associated with a 1.3 and 1.7-fold higher adjusted risk of mortality. Compared to the cohort without AKI, AKI-ND and AKI-D were associated with longer length of stay (9±10, 12±13, and 18±19 days respectively; p<0.001) and higher hospitalization costs ($101,859±116,204, $159,804±190,766, and $265,875 ± 254,919 respectively; p<0.001).

Conclusion

AKI-ND and AKI-D are associated with higher in-hospital mortality and resource utilization in AMI-CS.