Structural Design Principles for Delivery of Bioactive Components in Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

Development and Characterization of Liposomal Formulations Containing Phytosterols Extracted from Canola Oil Deodorizer Distillate along with Tocopherols as Food Additives

Phytosterols are plant sterols recommended as adjuvant therapy for hypercholesterolemia and tocopherols are well-established anti-oxidants. However, thermo-sensitivity, lipophilicity and formulation-dependent efficacy bring challenges in the development of functional foods, enriched with phytosterols and tocopherols. To address this, we developed liposomes containing brassicasterol, campesterol and β-sitosterol obtained from canola oil deodorizer distillate, along with alpha, gamma and delta tocopherol. Three approaches; thin film hydration-homogenization, thin film hydration-ultrasonication and Mozafari method were used for formulation. Validated liquid chromatographic tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was utilized to determine the entrapment efficiency of bioactives. Stability studies of liposomal formulations were conducted before and after pasteurization using high temperature short time (HTST) technique for a month. Vesicle size after homogenization and ultrasonication (<200 nm) was significantly lower than by Mozafari method (>200 nm). However, zeta potential (-9 to -14 mV) was comparable which was adequate for colloidal stability. Entrapment efficiencies were greater than 89% for all the phytosterols and tocopherols formulated by all three methods. Liposomes with optimum particle size and zeta potential were incorporated in model orange juice, showing adequate stability after pasteurization (72 °C for 15 s) for a month. Liposomes containing phytosterols obtained from canola waste along with tocopherols were developed and successfully applied as a food additive using model orange juice.

Design and implementation of novel nutraceuticals and derivatives for treating intestinal disorders

Gastrointestinal illnesses pose a significant worldwide disease burden and are associated with an array of medicinal and surgical therapies. Standard pharmaceutical options have adverse effects, prompting the rise of nutraceutical or food-derivative therapies. Here, we present an overview of the current nutraceutical therapies in gastrointestinal disease. We then introduce the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) as a novel therapeutic target. A G-protein-coupled receptor found in apical and basal intestinal cells, the CaSR modulates intestinal fluid secretion and mucosal integrity. Applying nutraceuticals that upregulate the CaSR may alleviate symptoms seen across a spectrum of illnesses. At last, we discuss how nanoparticle technology can be implemented to effectively deliver nutraceuticals to diseased regions of the intestine, thereby minimizing systemic side effects.

Design of gel structures in water and oil phases for improved delivery of bioactive food ingredients

Gels are viscoelastic systems built up with a liquid phase entrapped in a three-dimensional network, which can behave as carriers for bioactive food ingredients. Many attempts have been made to design gel structures in the water phase (hydrogels, emulsion gels, bigels) or oil phase (organogels, bigels) in order to improve their delivery performances. Hydrogels are originated from proteins or polysaccharides, which are suitable for the delivery of hydrophilic ingredients. Organogels are mainly built up with the self-assembling of gelator molecules in the oil phase, and they offer good carriers for lipophilic ingredients. Emulsion gels and bigels, containing both aqueous and oil domains, can provide accommodations for lipophilic and hydrophilic ingredients simultaneously. Gel structures (e.g. rheology, texture, water holding capacity, swelling ratio) can be modulated by choosing different gelators, modifying gelation techniques, and the involvement of other ingredients (e.g. oils, emulsifiers, minerals, acids), which then alter the diffusion and release of the bioactive ingredients incorporated. Various studies have proved that gel-based delivery systems are able to improve the stability and bioavailability of many bioactive food ingredients. This review provides a state-to-art overview of different gel-based delivery systems, highlighting the significance of structure-functionality relationship, to provide advanced knowledge for the design of novel functional foods.

Effect of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Coating based on Whey Protein Nanofibrils with TiO₂ Nanotubes on the Quality and Shelf Life of Chilled Meat

Whey protein nanofibrils (WPNFs) can be used in edible films and coatings (EFCs) because of its favorable functional properties, which rely on its well-ordered β-sheet structures, high hydrophobicity, homogeneous structure, and antioxidant activity. In the present study, WPNF-based edible coatings with glycerol (Gly) as plastic and titanium dioxide nanotubes (TNTs) as antimicrobial agents were studied. TNTs not only showed greater antibacterial activity than titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TNPs), but also increased interactions with WPNFs. The WPNF/TNT film had a smooth and continuous surface and was homogeneous with good mechanical properties. WPNF/TNT edible coatings (ECs) can help improve lipid peroxidation and antioxidant activity, limit microbial growth, reduce weight loss, and extend the shelf life of chilled beef. Given that the WPNF/TNT film components are low cost and show high antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, these optimized films have potential applications for various food products, including raw and chilled meat.

Solid lipid nanoparticles as carriers for lipophilic compounds for applications in foods

Nanotechnology is a new subject of interest in the field of food industry. Therefore, scientific and technological studies have been intensified in the last 10 years because of the promising results associated with the potential application of functional properties in food products, such as physical and chemical stability, protection and controlled release of bioactive compounds, and facilitated solubility of lipophilic compounds. Lipids have been used as raw material for the preparation of nanostructures, mainly owing to the solubilization capacity of lipophilic bioactive compounds, as well as because of the advantage of potentially using natural ingredients for production on an industrial scale. Thus, in this review, we describe the information reported in scientific literature on the chemical, physical, and structural properties of lipids used in the preparation of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). We reviewed the production methods; structural lipid components; emulsifying systems; bioactive lipophilic compounds; and the physical, thermal, and oxidative properties of SLN and NLC. In addition, important methods for characterizing these systems with regard to particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology, crystallization behavior, and polymorphism are discussed with examples, in order to support studies that consider physical stability during processing and storage. Furthermore, studies on the applications of SLNs and NLCs in foods are only found for model systems, justifying the compilation of a series of studies on the potential applications to encourage future works. In addition, we have described the aspects still under discussion, related to the possible risks and regulatory aspects of nanotechnology in food.

Curcumin: Recent Advances in the Development of Strategies to Improve Oral Bioavailability

Substantial human and preclinical studies have shown that curcumin, a dietary compound from turmeric, has a variety of health-promoting effects including but not limited to antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer actions. However, curcumin has poor bioavailability, and high doses of curcumin are usually needed to exert its health-promoting effects in vivo, limiting its applications for disease prevention. Here, we discuss the health-promoting effects of curcumin, factors limiting its bioavailability, and strategies to improve its oral bioavailability.

α-Ketoglutaric Acid-Modified Carbonate Apatite Enhances Cellular Uptake and Cytotoxicity of a Raf- Kinase Inhibitor in Breast Cancer Cells through Inhibition of MAPK and PI-3 Kinase Pathways

AZ628 is a hydrophobic Raf-kinase inhibitor (rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma) currently in clinical trial of various cancer. The physicochemical properties of hydrophobic drugs that affect the drug-particle interactions and cause aggregation of drugs and particles might be the key aspect to impede effective drug delivery. Retaining smaller particle size is the prerequisite to overcome the opsonization and improve cytotoxicity in the targeted region. Carbonate apatite (CA), an attractive biodegradable vector, has been used to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs and release the payloads inside the cells following endocytosis. We incorporated AZ628 into CA and also modified it with α-ketoglutaric acid (α-KA) for reducing particle growth kinetics and increasing total surface area to improve the delivery of AZ628 by enhancing cellular uptake by breast cancer cells. AZ628-loaded nanoparticles of CA and α-KA-modified CA (α-KAMCA) were synthesized and evaluated in MCF-7 and 4T1 cell lines by measuring cytotoxicity and cellular uptake analysis. HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) assay was performed to quantify the binding affinity of the nanocarriers towards the drug. Western blot analysis was done to see the activation and expression levels of Akt, MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathways and Caspase-3. Zetasizer was used to measure the particle size along with the surface charge. α-KAMCA showed almost 88% encapsulation efficacy for AZ628 with around 21% enhanced cellular uptake of the drug in two different breast cancer cell lines. These findings suggest that α-KAMCA could be a promising therapeutic tool to carry AZ628 for breast cancer treatment.

Exploring variability in detection thresholds of microparticles through participant characteristics

This study investigated how product familiarity and physiological characteristics of participants affect detectability of microparticles in viscous and semi-solid foods.

A glycated whey protein isolate–epigallocatechin gallate nanocomplex enhances the stability of emulsion delivery of β-carotene during simulated digestion

A glycated whey protein isolate–epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) nanocomplex-stabilized emulsion was used to encapsulate β-carotene.

Double emulsions with olive leaves extract as fat replacers in meat systems with high oxidative stability

Double emulsions (DE) with a healthy oil blend as lipid phase and an olive leave extract (OLE) encapsulated in the internal aqueous phase (DE/OLE) were incorporated as fat replacers in meat systems, in order to improve both the lipid profile and the oxidative stability. After 14 days of storage at 4 °C, DE/OLE showed good physical stability (90% of globule population was still below 10 μm diameter), and high antioxidant capacity (over 80%), longer than time required for this type of food ingredients. A high correlation was found between the remaining oleuropein content and the antioxidant capacity in both meat systems with DE/OLE (MS-DE/OLE) and meat systems with the oil blend as liquid oil and non-encapsulated OLE (MS-L/OLE). MS-DE/OLE were technologically feasible and showed higher retention of oleuropein (69%), oxidative stability and antioxidant capacity at 60 °C for 7 days than MS-L/OLE, where oleuropein was almost depleted. The encapsulation of OLE in DE could be a suitable strategy to avoid lipid oxidation in meat systems with healthier lipid profile.

Vitamin E Encapsulation in Plant-Based Nanoemulsions Fabricated Using Dual-Channel Microfluidization: Formation, Stability, and Bioaccessibility

In this study, vitamin E was encapsulated in oil-in-water nanoemulsions fabricated using a dual-channel microfluidizer. A long chain triacylglycerol (corn oil) was used as a carrier oil and a biosurfactant (quillaja saponin) was used as a natural emulsifier. The impact of vitamin-to-carrier oil ratio on the formation, storage stability, and bioaccessibility of the nanoemulsions was determined. The lipid droplet size formed during homogenization increased with increasing vitamin content, which was attributed to a large increase in lipid phase viscosity. The storage stability of the nanoemulsions decreased as the vitamin content increased because the larger lipid droplets creamed faster. The rate and extent of lipid hydrolysis in the small intestine decreased as the vitamin content increased, probably because the vitamin molecules inhibited the ability of lipase to reach the triacylglycerols inside the lipid droplets. Vitamin bioaccessibility decreased as the vitamin level in the lipid phase increased, which was attributed to the reduced level of mixed micelles available to solubilize the tocopherols. The optimized nanoemulsion-based delivery system led to a relatively high vitamin bioaccessibility (53.9%). This research provides valuable information for optimizing delivery systems to increase the bioaccessibility of oil-soluble vitamins.

Low-Energy Encapsulation of α-Tocopherol Using Fully Food Grade Oil-in-Water Microemulsions

Encapsulation of active agents, such as vitamins and antioxidants, is one of the possibilities that allow their incorporation in beverages, food, or in pharmaceutical products. Simultaneously, encapsulation protects these active agents from oxidation, producing more stable active compounds. Formation of nanodroplets by spontaneously formed microemulsion (ME) offers, on one hand, a low-energy technology of encapsulation and, on the other hand, because of a small size of the droplets, it assures long-term stability even in harsher environments. In this study, oil-in-water MEs allowed the low-energy encapsulation of α-tocopherol (αToc) into an aqueous medium with the aid of fully food-grade ingredients, using isoamyl acetate as the dispersed oil phase, which was selected between three different types of oils. Both cosurfactant-free and cosurfactant-holder ME systems were formulated, in which Tween 20 and glycerol were employed as the surfactant and the cosurfactant, respectively. The ME monophasic area was determined through the construction of pseudoternary phase diagrams. The encapsulated αToc within 10-20 nm nanocapsules showed radical scavenging activity dependent on the encapsulated amount of αToc, as it was demonstrated by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The radical scavenging activity slightly increased within the time investigated, indicating a slow release of the active compound from the nanodroplets, which is a promising result for their application, especially in pharmaceuticals.

Influence of conventional and recent extraction technologies on physicochemical properties of bioactive macromolecules from natural sources: A review

The incorporation of bioactive macromolecules from natural sources into marketable functional foods and nutraceuticals is of major significance to the agri-food sector. Interest in this area of research stems from the application of purified bioactive macromolecules in enhancing food quality and as an alternative to some pharmaceutical drugs for delivery of potential health benefits, with less associated adverse effects. To obtain bioactive macromolecules of high quality, appropriate use of extraction techniques and its influence on sensory and physicochemical properties is paramount. With the advent of technology-aided processes, there has been remarkable improvement in the extraction efficiency of these bioactive agents. An overview of the influence of these new techniques on extraction efficiency and physicochemical properties of proteins, lipids and fibers, which this detailed review provides, will prove to be a valuable resource to food industries aiming to maximize production of bioactive macromolecules from natural sources as well as the scientific community.

Ethyl oleate food-grade O/W emulsions loaded with apigenin: Insights to their formulation characteristics and physico-chemical stability

Apigenin has attracted a great interest in the food industry due to the wide range of its biological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. The encapsulation of apigenin in oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions could overcome its low solubility and lead to the development of new functional food products. The aim of this study is to formulate food-grade O/W submicron emulsions loaded with apigenin using high-pressure homogenization. Supersaturated solutions of 0.1 wt% apigenin in ethyl oleate were heated at 100 °C for 30, 60, or 120 min and the supernant after centrifugation were used as to-be-dispersed phases. An aqueous solution containing 1 wt% tween 20 was used as the continuous phase. We examined the effect of heating process of the ethyl oleate prior to emulsification and the homogenization-pressure (60-150 MPa) on the physico-chemical characteristics of the O/W emulsions immediately after formulation and during storage. Submicron O/W emulsions were formulated and the lowest average droplet diameter (d_av) was 169 ± 2.082 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.06 ± 0.002. After 30 days of storage at 4 °C, the O/W emulsion formulated remained physically stable with little change in their d_av and PDI values. The preheat treatment of ethyl oleate, affected the initial loaded apigenin concentration but hardly affected the physico-chemical stability of O/W emulsions. However, HPLC analysis demonstrated that the emulsification pressure was a relevant parameter affecting apigenin retention during the storage of O/W emulsions. Apigenin degradation in ethyl oleate O/W emulsions followed zero order kinetics and about 91.5-93.5% of apigenin could be retained in O/W emulsions after 30 days of storage.

Nanoencapsulation of Polyphenols towards Dairy Beverage Incorporation

Phenolic compounds, while widely recognized for their biological potential, when added into food matrixes may interact with food constituents. One example of this is the interaction between phenolic compounds and proteins, that may result in the formation of complexes and alter the bioavailability of both phenolic compounds and the nutrient availability. Moreover, when adding compounds to improve the functionality of a food matrix, these interactions may compromise the perceived benefits of the additions. Nanoencapsulation has been considered one of the means to circumvent these interactions, as they may function as a physical barrier between the phenolic compounds and the matrix (preventing not only the loss of bioactivity, but eventual sensorial alterations of the foods), protect phenolic compounds through the gastrointestinal tract, and may enhance phenolic absorption through cellular endocytosis. However, despite these advantages the food industry is still limited in its nanotechnological solutions, as special care must be taken to use food-grade encapsulants which will not pose any deleterious effect towards human health. Therefore, this review aims to provide an encompassing view of the existing advantages and limitations of nanotechnology, associated with the inclusion of phenolic compounds in dairy beverages.

Two-dimensional mixture of amphiphilic dimers and spheres: Self-assembly behaviour

The emergence of supramolecular aggregates from simple microscopic interaction rules is a fascinating feature of complex fluids which, besides its fundamental interest, has potential applications in many areas, from biological self-assembly to smart material design. We here investigate by Monte Carlo simulation the equilibrium structure of a two-dimensional mixture of asymmetric dimers and spheres (disks). Dimers and disks are hard particles, with an additional short-range attraction between a disk and the smaller monomer of a dimer. The model parameters and thermodynamic conditions probed are typical of colloidal fluid mixtures. In spite of the minimalistic character of the interaction, we observe-upon varying the relative concentration and size of the two colloidal species-a rich inventory of mesoscale structures at low temperature, such as clusters, lamellæ (i.e., polymer-like chains), and gel-like networks. For colloidal species of similar size and near equimolar concentrations, a dilute fluid of clusters gives way to floating lamellæ upon cooling; at higher densities, the lamellæ percolate through the simulation box, giving rise to an extended network. A crystal-vapour phase-separation may occur for a mixture of dimers and much larger disks. Finally, when the fluid is brought in contact with a planar wall, further structures are obtained at the interface, from layers to branched patterns, depending on the nature of wall-particle interactions.

Self-assembly in a model colloidal mixture of dimers and spherical particles

We investigate the structure of a dilute mixture of amphiphilic dimers and spherical particles, a model relevant to the problem of encapsulating globular "guest" molecules in a dispersion. Dimers and spheres are taken to be hard particles, with an additional attraction between spheres and the smaller monomers in a dimer. Using the Monte Carlo simulation, we document the low-temperature formation of aggregates of guests (clusters) held together by dimers, whose typical size and shape depend on the guest concentration χ. For low χ (less than 10%), most guests are isolated and coated with a layer of dimers. As χ progressively increases, clusters grow in size becoming more and more elongated and polydisperse; after reaching a shallow maximum for χ≈50%, the size of clusters again reduces upon increasing χ further. In one case only (χ=50% and moderately low temperature) the mixture relaxed to a fluid of lamellae, suggesting that in this case clusters are metastable with respect to crystal-vapor separation. On heating, clusters shrink until eventually the system becomes homogeneous on all scales. On the other hand, as the mixture is made denser and denser at low temperature, clusters get increasingly larger until a percolating network is formed.

Phenolic Compounds as Nutraceuticals or Functional Food Ingredients

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, the functional foods represent one the most promising, interesting and innovative areas in the food industry. Various components are being added to foods in order to render them functional.

METHODS

One example of these components are plant naturally occurring phenolic compounds, which are associated with a high antioxidant capacity and thus with benefits in relation to human health.

RESULTS

However, despite the huge number of scientific studies and patents on this topic and their natural presence in foods, namely in the ones from plant origin, there are still few marketable products enriched with these compounds. The commercialization of this type of functional products needs to go through various regulations, proving that they are safe and present the ascribed health benefits, conquering the target audience. In this review the growing interest of industry and consumers' appetence for functional foods and nutraceuticals is highlighted, focusing especially on phenolic compounds.

CONCLUSION

Although several published works show the multitude of bioactive properties of these compounds, ensuring their use as bioactive ingredients in food, they present inherent stability issues needing to be solved. However, considerable research is presently ongoing to overcome this problem, making viable the development of new products to be launched in the market.

Ethylcellulose Oleogels: Structure, Functionality, and Food Applications

The structuring edible oils by nontraditional means has become a popular strategy for improving the lipid profile of food products while retaining the functionality of a crystalline triglyceride network. Although numerous oleogelator systems have now been identified, the polymer gelator ethylcellulose (EC) may present the greatest potential for applications in a diverse range of food systems which require unique physical attributes and structuring properties in the fat phase. The first portion of this chapter will provide a brief overview of oleogelation strategies, outline the basic physical characteristics of the polymer EC, and describe the mechanism of gelation and some basic physical characteristics of EC oleogels. The subsequent sections will highlight different strategies which have been identified to manipulate the rheological and mechanical properties of these gels, including the addition of food-grade surfactants and other amphiphilic molecules, modulating bulk solvent polarity, and through the formation of EC/hybrid gelator systems. The final section will highlight various applications in food systems reported in the literature, outline recent work investigating the effect of structuring edible oils with EC on digestibility, and the potential applicability of these oleogels as a delivery vehicle for lipid-soluble molecules. The potential applications for EC oleogels in complex food systems are quite promising, and the strategies for manipulating their physical properties may also extend their applicability into the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and manufacturing industries.

Preparation, characterization, nanostructures and bio functional analysis of sonicated protein co-precipitates from brewers' spent grain and soybean flour

This investigation was performed to assess the effects of sonication on the structure of protein, extractability of phenolics, and biological properties of isolated proteins and protein co-precipitates prepared from brewers' spent grain and soybean flour. Scanning electron micrographs revealed that the sonicated protein isolates and co-precipitates had different microstructures with fewer aggregates and smaller particles down to the nanometer scale compared to non-sonicated samples. However, the levels of free and bound phenolics extracted from non-sonicated protein isolates and protein co-precipitates increased compared to sonicated samples. The bound phenolics extracted after acid hydrolysis of sonicated protein co-precipitates showed improved ACE inhibitory activity and diminished antioxidant potency compared to non-sonicated samples. However, the free phenolics extracted from sonicated protein co-precipitates showed decreased ACE inhibitory activity and increased antioxidant activities compared to non-sonicated samples. The free and bound phenolics extracted from sonicated protein co-precipitates showed increased alpha-amylase inhibitory activity compared to non-sonicated samples.