Structures of the pleiotropic translational regulator Hfq and an Hfq-RNA complex: a bacterial Sm-like protein

Despite similar binding to the Hfq protein regulatory RNAs widely differ in their competition performance

The binding of nine noncoding regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) to the E. coli Hfq protein was compared using a high-throughput double filter retention assay. Despite the fact that these sRNAs have different lengths, sequences and secondary structures their Hfq binding affinities were surprisingly uniform. The analysis of sRNAs binding to Hfq mutants showed that the proximal face of Hfq, known as the binding site for DsrA RNA, is a universal sRNA binding site. Moreover, all sRNAs bound Hfq with similar association rates limited only by the rate of diffusion, while the rates of dissociation, measured in the dilution experiments, were uniformly slow. Despite that, the data showed that there was a hierarchy of sRNAs in regard to their performance in competition for access to Hfq and in their ability to facilitate the dissociation of other sRNAs from Hfq. The sRNAs also differed in their salt dependence of binding to this protein. Overall, the results suggest that despite the uniform binding of different sRNAs to the same site on Hfq their exchange on this protein is dependent on the identities of the competing sRNAs.

Structural analysis of full-length Hfq from Escherichia coli

The structure of full-length host factor Qβ (Hfq) from Escherichia coli obtained from a crystal belonging to space group P1, with unit-cell parameters a = 61.91, b = 62.15, c = 81.26 Å, α = 78.6, β = 86.2, γ = 59.9°, was solved by molecular replacement to a resolution of 2.85 Å and refined to R(work) and R(free) values of 20.7% and 25.0%, respectively. Hfq from E. coli has previously been crystallized and the structure has been solved for the N-terminal 72 amino acids, which cover ~65% of the full-length sequence. Here, the purification, crystallization and structural data of the full 102-amino-acid protein are presented. These data revealed that the presence of the C-terminus changes the crystal packing of E. coli Hfq. The crystal structure is discussed in the context of the recently published solution structure of Hfq from E. coli.

Contribution of Hfq to photooxidative stress resistance and global regulation in Rhodobacter sphaeroides

The photosynthetic alphaproteobacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides has to cope with photooxidative stress that is caused by the bacteriochlorophyll a-mediated formation of singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)). Exposure to (1)O(2) induces the alternative sigma factors RpoE and RpoH(II) which then promote transcription of photooxidative stress-related genes, including small RNAs (sRNAs). The ubiquitous RNA chaperone Hfq is well established to interact with and facilitate the base-pairing of sRNAs and target mRNAs to influence mRNA stability and/or translation. Here we report on the pleiotropic phenotype of a Δhfq mutant of R. sphaeroides, which is less pigmented, produces minicells and is more sensitive to (1)O(2). The higher (1)O(2) sensitivity of the Δhfq mutant is paralleled by a reduced RpoE activity and a disordered induction of RpoH(II)-dependent genes. We used co-immunoprecipitation of FLAG-tagged Hfq combined with RNA-seq to identify association of at least 25 sRNAs and of mRNAs encoding cell division proteins and ribosomal proteins with Hfq. Remarkably, > 70% of the Hfq-bound sRNAs are (1)O(2)-affected. Proteomics analysis of the Hfq-deficient strain revealed an impact of Hfq on amino acid transport and metabolic functions. Our data demonstrate for the first time an involvement of Hfq in regulation of photosynthesis genes and in the photooxidative stress response.

Regulatory RNAs in Haloferax volcanii

In organisms of all three domains of life, a plethora of sRNAs (small regulatory RNAs) exists in addition to the well-known RNAs such as rRNAs, tRNAs and mRNAs. Although sRNAs have been well studied in eukaryotes and in bacteria, the sRNA population in archaea has just recently been identified and only in a few archaeal species. In the present paper, we summarize our current knowledge about sRNAs and their function in the halophilic archaeon Haloferax volcanii. Using two different experimental approaches, 111 intergenic and 38 antisense sRNAs were identified, as well as 42 tRFs (tRNA-derived fragments). Observation of differential expression under various conditions suggests that these sRNAs might be active as regulators in gene expression like their bacterial and eukaryotic counterparts. The severe phenotypes observed upon deletion and overexpression of sRNA genes revealed that sRNAs are involved in, and important for, a variety of biological functions in H. volcanii and possibly other archaea. Investigation of the Haloferax Lsm protein suggests that this protein is involved in the archaeal sRNA pathway.

Evidences of autoregulation of hfq expression in Sinorhizobium meliloti strain 2011

Riboregulation comprises gene expression regulatory mechanisms that rely upon the activity of small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) and in most cases RNA binding proteins. In γ-proteobacteria, the Sm-like protein Hfq is a key player in riboregulatory processes, because it promotes sRNA-mRNA interactions and influences mRNA polyadenylation or translation. In the α-proteobacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti, the large number of detected small RNA transcripts and the pleiotropic effects of hfq mutations lead to the hypothesis that riboregulatory mechanisms are important in this soil microorganism to adjust gene expression both in free-living conditions and as a nitrogen-fixing endosymbiont within legume root nodules. In this study, homology modeling of S. meliloti Hfq protein and cross-complementation experiments of S. meliloti and Escherichia coli mutants indicates that hfq ( Sm ) encodes an RNA chaperone that can be functionally exchanged by its homolog from E. coli. A transcriptional and translational analysis of S. meliloti hfq expression by means of lacZ reporter fusions strongly suggests that the S. meliloti Hfq protein autocontrols its expression at the translational level, a phenomenon that was evident in the natural host S. meliloti as well as in the heterologous host E. coli.

Rapid binding and release of Hfq from ternary complexes during RNA annealing

The Sm protein Hfq binds small non-coding RNA (sRNAs) in bacteria and facilitates their base pairing with mRNA targets. Molecular beacons and a 16 nt RNA derived from the Hfq binding site in DsrA sRNA were used to investigate how Hfq accelerates base pairing between complementary strands of RNA. Stopped-flow fluorescence experiments showed that annealing became faster with Hfq concentration but was impaired by mutations in RNA binding sites on either face of the Hfq ring or by competition with excess RNA substrate. A fast bimolecular Hfq binding step (∼10⁸ M⁻¹s⁻¹) observed with Cy3-Hfq was followed by a slow transition (0.5 s⁻¹) to a stable Hfq–RNA complex that exchanges RNA ligands more slowly. Release of Hfq upon addition of complementary RNA was faster than duplex formation, suggesting that the nucleic acid strands dissociate from Hfq before base pairing is complete. A working model is presented in which rapid co-binding and release of two RNA strands from the Hfq ternary complex accelerates helix initiation 10 000 times above the Hfq-independent rate. Thus, Hfq acts to overcome barriers to helix initiation, but the net reaction flux depends on how tightly Hfq binds the reactants and products and the potential for unproductive binding interactions.

The stoichiometry of the Escherichia coli Hfq protein bound to RNA

The Escherichia coli RNA binding protein Hfq is involved in many aspects of post-transcriptional gene expression. Tight binding of Hfq to polyadenylate sequences at the 3' end of mRNAs influences exonucleolytic degradation, while Hfq binding to small noncoding RNAs (sRNA) and their targeted mRNAs facilitate their hybridization which in turn effects translation. Hfq binding to an A-rich tract in the 5' leader region of the rpoS mRNA and to the sRNA DsrA have been shown to be important for DsrA enhanced translation initiation of this mRNA. The complexes of Hfq-A(18) and Hfq-DsrA provide models for understanding how Hfq interacts with these two RNA sequence/structure motifs. Different methods have reported different values for the stoichiometry of Hfq-A(18) and Hfq-DsrA. In this work, mass spectrometry and analytical ultracentrifugation provide direct evidence that the strong binding mode of the Hfq hexamer (Hfq(6)) for A(18) and domain II of DsrA (DsrA(DII)) involve 1:1 complexes. This stoichiometry was also supported by fluorescence anisotropy and a competition gel mobility shift experiment using wild-type and truncated Hfq. More limited studies of Hfq binding to DsrA as well as to the sRNAs RprA, OxyS, and an 18-nt segment of OxyS were also consistent with 1:1 stoichiometry. Mass spectrometry of cross-linked samples of Hfq(6), A(18), and DsrA(DII) exhibit intensity corresponding to a ternary 1:1:1 complex; however, the small intensity of this peak and fluorescence anisotropy experiments did not provide evidence that this ternary complex is stable in solution.

Dynamic competition of DsrA and rpoS fragments for the proximal binding site of Hfq as a means for efficient annealing

Hfq is a key regulator involved in multiple aspects of stress tolerance and virulence of bacteria. There has been an intriguing question as to how this RNA chaperone achieves two completely opposite functions—annealing and unwinding—for different RNA substrates. To address this question, we studied the Hfq-mediated interaction of fragments of a non-coding RNA, DsrA, with its mRNA target rpoS by using single-molecule fluorescence techniques. These experiments permitted us to observe the mechanistic steps of Hfq-mediated RNA annealing/unwinding at the single-molecule level, for the first time. Our real-time observations reveal that, even if the ring-shaped Hfq displays multiple binding sites for its interaction with RNA, the regulatory RNA and the mRNA compete for the same binding site. The competition makes the RNA-Hfq interaction dynamic and, surprisingly, increases the overall annealing efficiency by properly aligning the two RNAs. We furthermore reveal that when Hfq specifically binds to only one of the two RNAs, the unwinding process dominates over the annealing process, thus shedding a new light on the substrate selectivity for annealing or unwinding. Finally, our results demonstrate for the first time that a single Hfq hexamer is sufficient to facilitate sRNA–mRNA annealing.

Structural insights into the dynamics and function of the C-terminus of the E. coli RNA chaperone Hfq

The hexameric Escherichia coli RNA chaperone Hfq (Hfq(Ec)) is involved in riboregulation of target mRNAs by small trans-encoded RNAs. Hfq proteins of different bacteria comprise an evolutionarily conserved core, whereas the C-terminus is variable in length. Although the structure of the conserved core has been elucidated for several Hfq proteins, no structural information has yet been obtained for the C-terminus. Using bioinformatics, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, synchrotron radiation circular dichroism (SRCD) spectroscopy and small angle X-ray scattering we provide for the first time insights into the conformation and dynamic properties of the C-terminal extension of Hfq(Ec). These studies indicate that the C-termini are flexible and extend laterally away from the hexameric core, displaying in this way features typical of intrinsically disordered proteins that facilitate intermolecular interactions. We identified a minimal, intrinsically disordered region of the C-terminus supporting the interactions with longer RNA fragments. This minimal region together with rest of the C-terminal extension provides a flexible moiety capable of tethering long and structurally diverse RNA molecules. Furthermore, SRCD spectroscopy supported the hypothesis that RNA fragments exceeding a certain length interact with the C-termini of Hfq(Ec).

Large favorable enthalpy changes drive specific RNA recognition by RNA recognition motif proteins

The RNA recognition motif (RRM) is a prevalent class of RNA binding domains. Although a number of RRM/RNA structures have been determined, thermodynamic analyses are relatively uncommon. Here, we use isothermal titration calorimetry to characterize single-stranded (ss)RNA binding by four representative RRM-containing proteins: (i) U2AF(65), (ii) SXL, (iii) TIA-1, and (iv) PAB. In all cases, ssRNA binding is accompanied by remarkably large favorable enthalpy changes (-30 to -60 kcal mol(-1)) and unfavorable entropy changes. Alterations of key RRM residues and binding sites indicate that under the nearly physiological conditions of these studies, large thermodynamic changes represent a signature of specific ssRNA recognition by RRMs.

Proteins with RNA chaperone activity: a world of diverse proteins with a common task-impediment of RNA misfolding

Proteins with RNA chaperone activity are ubiquitous proteins that play important roles in cellular mechanisms. They prevent RNA from misfolding by loosening misfolded structures without ATP consumption. RNA chaperone activity is studied in vitro and in vivo using oligonucleotide- or ribozyme-based assays. Due to their functional as well as structural diversity, a common chaperoning mechanism or universal motif has not yet been identified. A growing database of proteins with RNA chaperone activity has been established based on evaluation of chaperone activity via the described assays. Although the exact mechanism is not yet understood, it is more and more believed that disordered regions within proteins play an important role. This possible mechanism and which proteins were found to possess RNA chaperone activity are discussed here.

RNAs actively cycle on the Sm-like protein Hfq

Hfq, a protein required for small RNA (sRNA)-mediated regulation in bacteria, binds RNA with low-nanomolar K(d) values and long half-lives of complexes (>100 min). This cannot be reconciled with the 1- 2-min response time of regulation in vivo. We show that RNAs displace each other on Hfq on a short time scale by RNA concentration-driven (active) cycling. Already at submicromolar concentrations of competitor RNA, half-lives of RNA-Hfq complexes are ≈1 min. We propose that competitor RNA associates transiently with RNA-Hfq complexes, RNAs exchange binding sites, and one of the RNAs eventually dissociates. This solves the "strong binding-high turnover" paradox and permits efficient use of the Hfq pool.

Computational approach to ensure the stability of the favorable ATP binding site in E. coli Hfq

Bacterial Hfq is a highly conserved thermostable protein of about 10 kDa. The Hfq protein was discovered in 1968 as an E. coli host factor that was essential for replication of the bacteriophage Qβ. It is now clear that Hfq has many important physiological roles. In E. coli, Hfq mutants show a multiple stress response related phenotypes. Hfq is now known to regulate the translation of two major stress transcription factors RpoS and RpoE in Enterobacteria and mediates its plieotrophic effects through several mechanisms. It interacts with regulatory sRNA and facilitates their antisense interaction with their targets. It also acts independently to modulate mRNA decay and in addition acts as a repressor of mRNA translation. Recent paper from Arluison et al. provided the first evidence indicating that Hfq is an ATP-binding protein. They determined a plausible ATP-binding site in Hfq and tested Hfq's ATP-binding affinity and stoichiometry. Experimental data suggest that the ATP-binding by the Hfq-RNA complex results in its significant destabilization of the protein and the result also proves important role of Tyr25 that flanks the cleft and stabilizes the adenine portion of ATP, possibly via aromatic stacking. In our study, the ATP molecule was docked into the predicted binding cleft using GOLD docking software. The binding nature of ATP and its effect on Hfq-RNA complex was studied using molecular dynamics simulations. Importance of Tyr25 residue was monitored and revealed using mutational study on the modeled systems. Our data and the corresponding results point to one of Hfq functional structural consequences due to ATP binding and Tyr25Ala mutation.

Identification and function of the RNA chaperone Hfq in the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi

Hfq is a global regulatory RNA-binding protein. We have identified and characterized an atypical Hfq required for gene regulation and infectivity in the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. Sequence analyses of the putative B. burgdorferi Hfq protein revealed only a modest level of similarity with the Hfq from Escherichia coli, although a few key residues are retained and the predicted tertiary structure is similar. Several lines of evidence suggest that the B. burgdorferi bb0268 gene encodes a functional Hfq homologue. First, the hfq(Bb) gene (bb0268) restores the efficient translation of an rpoS::lacZ fusion in an E. coli hfq null mutant. Second, the Hfq from B. burgdorferi binds to the small RNA DsrA(Bb) and the rpoS mRNA. Third, a B. burgdorferi hfq null mutant was generated and has a pleiotropic phenotype that includes increased cell length and decreased growth rate, as found in hfq mutants in other bacteria. The hfq(Bb) mutant phenotype is complemented in trans with the hfq gene from either B. burgdorferi or, surprisingly, E. coli. This is the first example of a heterologous bacterial gene complementing a B. burgdorferi mutant. The alternative sigma factor RpoS and the outer membrane lipoprotein OspC, which are induced by increased temperature and required for mammalian infection, are not upregulated in the hfq mutant. Consequently, the hfq mutant is not infectious by needle inoculation in the murine model. These data suggest that Hfq plays a key role in the regulation of pathogenicity factors in B. burgdorferi and we hypothesize that the spirochete has a complex Hfq-dependent sRNA network.

C-terminally truncated derivatives of Escherichia coli Hfq are proficient in riboregulation

The prokaryotic Sm-like protein Hfq plays an essential role in the stability and function of trans-encoded small regulatory RNAs in enterobacteria that function in posttranscriptional control by base-pairing with cognate target mRNAs. Hfq associates with both regulatory RNA and target RNA, and its interaction promotes annealing. So far, mutational and structural studies have established that Escherichia coli Hfq contains two separate RNA binding sites that are part of the conserved N-terminal portion of the protein. Moreover, it has been suggested that the nonconserved C-terminal extension of E. coli Hfq might constitute a third RNA interaction surface with specificity for mRNA. However, the role of the C-terminus has not been fully resolved but is clearly important for a complete understanding of Hfq function in posttranscriptional regulation and RNA decay. Here we examined the ability of E. coli Hfq derivatives, consisting of the conserved core and short C-terminal extensions, to support the regulation of rpoS expression and riboregulation by various well-characterized small regulatory RNAs. Our data show that, in all cases tested, the truncated proteins are fully capable of promoting posttranscriptional control, indicating that the C-terminal tail of E. coli Hfq plays a small role or no role in riboregulation.

Hfq is a global regulator that controls the pathogenicity of Staphylococcus aureus

The Hfq protein is reported to be an RNA chaperone, which is involved in the stress response and the virulence of several pathogens. In E. coli, Hfq can mediate the interaction between some sRNAs and their target mRNAs. But it is controversial whether Hfq plays an important role in S. aureus. In this study, we found that the deletion of hfq gene in S. aureus 8325-4 can increase the surface carotenoid pigments. The hfq mutant was more resistant to oxidative stress but the pathogenicity of the mutant was reduced. We reveal that the Hfq protein can be detected only in some S. aureus strains. Using microarray and qRT-PCR, we identified 116 genes in the hfq mutant which had differential expression from the wild type, most of which are related to the phenotype and virulence of S. aureus. Among the 116 genes, 49 mRNAs can specifically bind Hfq protein, which indicates that Hfq also acts as an RNA binding protein in S. aureus. Our data suggest that Hfq protein of S. aureus is a multifunctional regulator involved in stress and virulence.

An upstream Hfq binding site in the fhlA mRNA leader region facilitates the OxyS-fhlA interaction

BACKGROUND

To survive, bacteria must be able to adapt to environmental stresses. Small regulatory RNAs have been implicated as intermediates in a variety of stress-response pathways allowing dynamic gene regulation. The RNA binding protein Hfq facilitates this process in many cases, helping sRNAs base pair with their target mRNAs and initiate gene regulation. Although Hfq has been identified as a critical component in many RNPs, the manner by which Hfq controls these interactions is not known.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

To test the requirement of Hfq in these mRNA-sRNA complexes, the OxyS-fhlA system was used as a model. OxyS is induced in response to oxidative stress and down regulates the translation of fhlA, a gene encoding a transcriptional activator for formate metabolism. Biophysical characterization of this system previously used a minimal construct of the fhlA mRNA which inadvertently removed a critical element within the leader sequence of this mRNA that effected thermodynamics and kinetics for the interaction with Hfq.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Herein, we report thermodynamic, kinetic and structural mapping studies during binary and ternary complex formation between Hfq, OxyS and fhlA mRNA. Hfq binds fhlA mRNA using both the proximal and distal surfaces and stimulates association kinetics between the sRNA and mRNA but remains bound to fhlA forming a ternary complex. The upstream Hfq binding element within fhlA is similar to (ARN)(x) elements recently identified in other mRNAs regulated by Hfq. This work leads to a kinetic model for the dynamics of these complexes and the regulation of gene expression by bacterial sRNAs.

Structural basis for mRNA surveillance by archaeal Pelota and GTP-bound EF1α complex

No-go decay and nonstop decay are mRNA surveillance pathways that detect translational stalling and degrade the underlying mRNA, allowing the correct translation of the genetic code. In eukaryotes, the protein complex of Pelota (yeast Dom34) and Hbs1 translational GTPase recognizes the stalled ribosome containing the defective mRNA. Recently, we found that archaeal Pelota (aPelota) associates with archaeal elongation factor 1α (aEF1α) to act in the mRNA surveillance pathway, which accounts for the lack of an Hbs1 ortholog in archaea. Here we present the complex structure of aPelota and GTP-bound aEF1α determined at 2.3-Å resolution. The structure reveals how GTP-bound aEF1α recognizes aPelota and how aPelota in turn stabilizes the GTP form of aEF1α. Combined with the functional analysis in yeast, the present results provide structural insights into the molecular interaction between eukaryotic Pelota and Hbs1. Strikingly, the aPelota·aEF1α complex structurally resembles the tRNA·EF-Tu complex bound to the ribosome. Our findings suggest that the molecular mimicry of tRNA in the distorted "A/T state" conformation by Pelota enables the complex to efficiently detect and enter the empty A site of the stalled ribosome.

The chaperone ClpX stimulates expression of Staphylococcus aureus protein A by Rot dependent and independent pathways

The Clp ATPases (Hsp100) constitute a family of closely related proteins that have protein reactivating and remodelling activities typical of molecular chaperones. In Staphylococcus aureus the ClpX chaperone is essential for virulence and for transcription of spa encoding Protein A. The present study was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism by which ClpX stimulates expression of Protein A. For this purpose, we prepared antibodies directed against Rot, an activator of spa transcription, and demonstrated that cells devoid of ClpX contain three-fold less Rot than wild-type cells. By varying Rot expression from an inducible promoter we showed that expression of Protein A requires a threshold level of Rot. In the absence of ClpX the Rot content is reduced below this threshold level, hence, explaining the substantially reduced Protein A expression in the clpX mutant. Experiments addressed at pinpointing the role of ClpX in Rot synthesis revealed that ClpX is required for translation of Rot. Interestingly, translation of the spa mRNA was, like the rot mRNA, enhanced by ClpX. These data demonstrate that ClpX performs dual roles in regulating Protein A expression, as ClpX stimulates transcription of spa by enhancing translation of Rot, and that ClpX additionally is required for full translation of the spa mRNA. The current findings emphasize that ClpX has a central role in fine-tuning virulence regulation in S. aureus.

The archaeal Lsm protein binds to small RNAs

Proteins of the Lsm family, including eukaryotic Sm proteins and bacterial Hfq, are key players in RNA metabolism. Little is known about the archaeal homologues of these proteins. Therefore, we characterized the Lsm protein from the haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii using in vitro and in vivo approaches. H. volcanii encodes a single Lsm protein, which belongs to the Lsm1 subfamily. The lsm gene is co-transcribed and overlaps with the gene for the ribosomal protein L37e. Northern blot analysis shows that the lsm gene is differentially transcribed. The Lsm protein forms homoheptameric complexes and has a copy number of 4000 molecules/cell. In vitro analyses using electrophoretic mobility shift assays and ultrasoft mass spectrometry (laser-induced liquid bead ion desorption) showed a complex formation of the recombinant Lsm protein with oligo(U)-RNA, tRNAs, and an small RNA. Co-immunoprecipitation with a FLAG-tagged Lsm protein produced in vivo confirmed that the protein binds to small RNAs. Furthermore, the co-immunoprecipitation revealed several protein interaction partners, suggesting its involvement in different cellular pathways. The deletion of the lsm gene is viable, resulting in a pleiotropic phenotype, indicating that the haloarchaeal Lsm is involved in many cellular processes, which is in congruence with the number of protein interaction partners.

HIV Rev response element (RRE) directs assembly of the Rev homooligomer into discrete asymmetric complexes

RNA is a crucial structural component of many ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes, including the ribosome, spliceosome, and signal recognition particle, but the role of RNA in guiding complex formation is only beginning to be explored. In the case of HIV, viral replication requires assembly of an RNP composed of the Rev protein homooligomer and the Rev response element (RRE) RNA to mediate nuclear export of unspliced viral mRNAs. Assembly of the functional Rev-RRE complex proceeds by cooperative oligomerization of Rev on the RRE scaffold and utilizes both protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions to organize complexes with high specificity. The structures of the Rev protein and a peptide-RNA complex are known, but the complete RNP is not, making it unclear to what extent RNA defines the composition and architecture of Rev-RNA complexes. Here we show that the RRE controls the oligomeric state and solubility of Rev and guides its assembly into discrete Rev-RNA complexes. SAXS and EM data were used to derive a structural model of a Rev dimer bound to an essential RRE hairpin and to visualize the complete Rev-RRE RNP, demonstrating that RRE binding drives assembly of Rev homooligomers into asymmetric particles, reminiscent of the role of RNA in organizing more complex RNP machines, such as the ribosome, composed of many different protein subunits. Thus, the RRE is not simply a passive scaffold onto which proteins bind but instead actively defines the protein composition and organization of the RNP.

The structures of mutant forms of Hfq from Pseudomonas aeruginosa reveal the importance of the conserved His57 for the protein hexamer organization

The bacterial Sm-like protein Hfq forms homohexamers both in solution and in crystals. The monomers are organized as a continuous beta-sheet passing through the whole hexamer ring with a common hydrophobic core. Analysis of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa Hfq (PaeHfq) hexamer structure suggested that solvent-inaccessible intermonomer hydrogen bonds created by conserved amino-acid residues should also stabilize the quaternary structure of the protein. In this work, one such conserved residue, His57, in PaeHfq was replaced by alanine, threonine or asparagine. The crystal structures of His57Thr and His57Ala Hfq were determined and the stabilities of all of the mutant forms and of the wild-type protein were measured. The results obtained demonstrate the great importance of solvent-inaccessible conserved hydrogen bonds between the Hfq monomers in stabilization of the hexamer structure.

The importance of the small RNA chaperone Hfq for growth of epidemic Yersinia pestis, but not Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, with implications for plague biology

Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, has only recently evolved from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. hfq deletion caused severe growth restriction at 37 degrees C in Y. pestis but not in Y. pseudotuberculosis. Strains from all epidemic plague biovars were similarly affected, implicating Hfq, and likely small RNAs (sRNAs), in the unique biology of the plague bacillus.

Positive regulation by small RNAs and the role of Hfq

Bacterial small noncoding RNAs carry out both positive and negative regulation of gene expression by pairing with mRNAs; in Escherichia coli, this regulation often requires the RNA chaperone Hfq. Three small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs), DsrA, RprA, and ArcZ, positively regulate translation of the sigma factor RpoS, each pairing with the 5' leader to open up an inhibitory hairpin. In vitro, rpoS interaction with sRNAs depends upon an (AAN)(4) Hfq-binding site upstream of the pairing region. Here we show that both Hfq and this Hfq binding site are required for RprA or ArcZ to act in vivo and to form a stable complex with rpoS mRNA in vitro; both were partially dispensable for DsrA at 37 degrees C. ArcZ sRNA is processed from 121 nt to a stable 56 nt species that contains the pairing region; only the 56 nt ArcZ makes a strong Hfq-dependent complex with rpoS. For each of these sRNAs, the stability of the sRNA*mRNA complexes, rather than their rate of formation, best predicted in vivo activity. These studies demonstrate that binding of Hfq to the rpoS mRNA is critical for sRNA regulation under normal conditions, but if the stability of the sRNA*mRNA complex is sufficiently high, the requirement for Hfq can be bypassed.

Expression, crystallization and preliminary crystallographic analysis of RNA-binding protein Hfq (YmaH) from Bacillus subtilis in complex with an RNA aptamer

The Hfq protein is a hexameric RNA-binding protein which regulates gene expression by binding to RNA under the influence of diverse environmental stresses. Its ring structure binds various types of RNA, including mRNA and sRNA. RNA-bound structures of Hfq from Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus have been revealed to have poly(A) RNA at the distal site and U-rich RNA at the proximal site, respectively. Here, crystals of a complex of the Bacillus subtilis Hfq protein with an A/G-repeat 7-mer RNA (Hfq-RNA) that were prepared using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion technique are reported. The type 1 Hfq-RNA crystals belonged to space group I422, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 123.70, c = 119.13 A, while the type 2 Hfq-RNA crystals belonged to space group F222, with unit-cell parameters a = 91.92, b = 92.50, c = 114.92 A. Diffraction data were collected to a resolution of 2.20 A from both crystal forms. The hexameric structure of the Hfq protein was clearly shown by self-rotation analysis.

Mapping the binding site of snurportin 1 on native U1 snRNP by cross-linking and mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometry allows the elucidation of molecular details of the interaction domains of the individual components in macromolecular complexes subsequent to cross-linking of the individual components. Here, we applied chemical and UV cross-linking combined with tandem mass-spectrometric analysis to identify contact sites of the nuclear import adaptor snurportin 1 to the small ribonucleoprotein particle U1 snRNP in addition to the known interaction of m₃G cap and snurportin 1. We were able to define previously unknown sites of protein–protein and protein–RNA interactions on the molecular level within U1 snRNP. We show that snurportin 1 interacts with its central m₃G-cap-binding domain with Sm proteins and with its extreme C-terminus with stem-loop III of U1 snRNA. The crosslinking data support the idea of a larger interaction area between snurportin 1 and U snRNPs and the contact sites identified prove useful for modeling the spatial arrangement of snurportin 1 domains when bound to U1 snRNP. Moreover, this suggests a functional nuclear import complex that assembles around the m₃G cap and the Sm proteins only when the Sm proteins are bound and arranged in the proper orientation to the cognate Sm site in U snRNA.

Smed-SmB, a member of the LSm protein superfamily, is essential for chromatoid body organization and planarian stem cell proliferation

Planarians are an ideal model system to study in vivo the dynamics of adult pluripotent stem cells. However, our knowledge of the factors necessary for regulating the 'stemness' of the neoblasts, the adult stem cells of planarians, is sparse. Here, we report on the characterization of the first planarian member of the LSm protein superfamily, Smed-SmB, which is expressed in stem cells and neurons in Schmidtea mediterranea. LSm proteins are highly conserved key players of the splicing machinery. Our study shows that Smed-SmB protein, which is localized in the nucleus and the chromatoid body of stem cells, is required to safeguard the proliferative ability of the neoblasts. The chromatoid body, a cytoplasmatic ribonucleoprotein complex, is an essential regulator of the RNA metabolism required for the maintenance of metazoan germ cells. However, planarian neoblasts and neurons also rely on its functions. Remarkably, Smed-SmB dsRNA-mediated knockdown results in a rapid loss of organization of the chromatoid body, an impairment of the ability to post-transcriptionally process the transcripts of Smed-CycB, and a severe proliferative failure of the neoblasts. This chain of events leads to a quick depletion of the neoblast pool, resulting in a lethal phenotype for both regenerating and intact animals. In summary, our results suggest that Smed-SmB is an essential component of the chromatoid body, crucial to ensure a proper RNA metabolism and essential for stem cell proliferation.

Engineered rings of mixed yeast Lsm proteins show differential interactions with translation factors and U-rich RNA

The Lsm proteins organize as heteroheptameric ring assemblies capable of binding RNA substrates and ancillary protein factors. We have constructed simplified Lsm polyproteins that organize as multimeric ring structures as analogues of the functional Lsm complexes. Polyproteins Lsm[2+3], Lsm[4+1], and Lsm[5+6] incorporate natural sequence extensions as linker peptides between the core Lsm domains. In solution, the recombinant products organize as stable ring oligomers (75 A wide, 20 A pores) in discrete tetrameric and octameric forms. Following immobilization, the polyproteins successfully act as affinity pull-down ligands for proteins within yeast lysate, including native Lsm proteins. Interaction partners were consistent with current models of the mixed Lsm ring assembly in vivo but also suggest that dynamic rearrangements of Lsm protein complexes can occur. The Lsm polyprotein ring complexes were seen in gel shift assays to have a preference for U-rich RNA sequences, with tightest binding measured for Lsm[2+3] with U(10). Polyprotein rings containing truncated forms of Lsm1 and Lsm4 were found to associate with translation, initiation, and elongation protein factors in an RNA-dependent manner. Our findings suggest Lsm1 and/or Lsm4 can interact with translationally active mRNA.

LSm1-7 complexes bind to specific sites in viral RNA genomes and regulate their translation and replication

LSm1-7 complexes promote cellular mRNA degradation, in addition to translation and replication of positive-strand RNA viruses such as the Brome mosaic virus (BMV). Yet, how LSm1-7 complexes act on their targets remains elusive. Here, we report that reconstituted recombinant LSm1-7 complexes directly bind to two distinct RNA-target sequences in the BMV genome, a tRNA-like structure at the 3'-untranslated region and two internal A-rich single-stranded regions. Importantly, in vivo analysis shows that these sequences regulate the translation and replication of the BMV genome. Furthermore, both RNA-target sequences resemble those found for Hfq, the LSm counterpart in bacteria, suggesting conservation through evolution. Our results provide the first evidence that LSm1-7 complexes interact directly with viral RNA genomes and open new perspectives in the understanding of LSm1-7 functions.

Genomic SELEX for Hfq-binding RNAs identifies genomic aptamers predominantly in antisense transcripts

An unexpectedly high number of regulatory RNAs have been recently discovered that fine-tune the function of genes at all levels of expression. We employed Genomic SELEX, a method to identify protein-binding RNAs encoded in the genome, to search for further regulatory RNAs in Escherichia coli. We used the global regulator protein Hfq as bait, because it can interact with a large number of RNAs, promoting their interaction. The enriched SELEX pool was subjected to deep sequencing, and 8865 sequences were mapped to the E. coli genome. These short sequences represent genomic Hfq-aptamers and are part of potential regulatory elements within RNA molecules. The motif 5′-AAYAAYAA-3′ was enriched in the selected RNAs and confers low-nanomolar affinity to Hfq. The motif was confirmed to bind Hfq by DMS footprinting. The Hfq aptamers are 4-fold more frequent on the antisense strand of protein coding genes than on the sense strand. They were enriched opposite to translation start sites or opposite to intervening sequences between ORFs in operons. These results expand the repertoire of Hfq targets and also suggest that Hfq might regulate the expression of a large number of genes via interaction with cis-antisense RNAs.

Interactions of the RNA-binding protein Hfq with cspA mRNA, encoding the major cold shock protein

CspA, a small protein that is highly induced by cold shock, is encoded by a monocistronic mRNA of 428 nucleotides (nt) whose half-life and abundance are greatly increased following cold shock. We show here that in vitro cspA mRNA can bind multiple copies of Hfq, a hexameric Sm-like protein which promotes a variety of RNA-RNA interactions. Binding of the first Hfq hexamer occurs with an apparent K(d) (dissociation constant) of <40 nM; up to seven additional hexamers can bind sequentially at higher concentrations. Known ligands of Hfq, including the small regulatory RNA, RyhB, compete with cspA mRNA. Several experiments suggest that the first binding site to be occupied by Hfq is located at or near the 3' end of cspA mRNA. The consequences of limited Hfq binding in vitro include nearly total inhibition of RNase E cleavage at a site approximately 35 nt from the 3' end of the mRNA, stimulation of polyadenylation by poly(A) polymerase 1, and subsequent exonucleolytic degradation by polynucleotide phosphorylase. We propose that Hfq may play a facilitating role in the metabolism of cspA mRNA.

The Sinorhizobium meliloti RNA chaperone Hfq mediates symbiosis of S. meliloti and alfalfa

There exist commonalities between symbiotic Sinorhizobium meliloti and pathogenic Brucella bacteria in terms of extensive gene synteny and the requirements for intracellular survival in their respective hosts. The RNA chaperone Hfq is essential for virulence for several bacterial groups, including Brucella; however, its role in S. meliloti has not been investigated. Our studies of an S. meliloti loss-of-function hfq mutant have revealed that Hfq plays a key role in the establishment of the symbiosis between S. meliloti and its host Medicago sativa. S. meliloti Hfq is involved in controlling the population density under a free-living state and affects the growth parameters and nodulation. An hfq mutant poorly colonizes the infection threads that are necessary for the bacteria to invade the developing nodule. An hfq mutant is severely impaired in its ability to invade plant cells within the nodule, which leads to the formation of small, ineffective nodules unable to fix nitrogen. In culture, the hfq mutant did not accumulate transcripts of nifA, which encodes a key regulator necessary for nitrogen fixation. Hfq may be involved in regulation of several proteins relevant to hfq mutant phenotypes. The crucial role of Hfq in symbiosis suggests that small regulatory RNAs are important for its interactions with its plant host.

Translational regulation of gene expression by an anaerobically induced small non-coding RNA in Escherichia coli

Small non-coding RNAs (sRNA) have emerged as important elements of gene regulatory circuits. In enterobacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella many of these sRNAs interact with the Hfq protein, an RNA chaperone similar to mammalian Sm-like proteins and act in the post-transcriptional regulation of many genes. A number of these highly conserved ribo-regulators are stringently regulated at the level of transcription and are part of major regulons that deal with the immediate response to various stress conditions, indicating that every major transcription factor may control the expression of at least one sRNA regulator. Here, we extend this view by the identification and characterization of a highly conserved, anaerobically induced small sRNA in E. coli, whose expression is strictly dependent on the anaerobic transcriptional fumarate and nitrate reductase regulator (FNR). The sRNA, named FnrS, possesses signatures of base-pairing RNAs, and we show by employing global proteomic and transcriptomic profiling that the expression of multiple genes is negatively regulated by the sRNA. Intriguingly, many of these genes encode enzymes with "aerobic" functions or enzymes linked to oxidative stress. Furthermore, in previous work most of the potential target genes have been shown to be repressed by FNR through an undetermined mechanism. Collectively, our results provide insight into the mechanism by which FNR negatively regulates genes such as sodA, sodB, cydDC, and metE, thereby demonstrating that adaptation to anaerobic growth involves the action of a small regulatory RNA.

Cellular electron microscopy imaging reveals the localization of the Hfq protein close to the bacterial membrane

Background

Hfq is a bacterial protein involved in several aspects of nucleic acid transactions, but one of its best-characterized functions is to affect the post-transcriptional regulation of mRNA by virtue of its interactions with stress-related small regulatory (sRNA).

Methodology and Principal Finding

By using cellular imaging based on the metallothionein clonable tag for electron microscopy, we demonstrate here that in addition to its localization in the cytoplasm and in the nucleoid, a significant amount of Hfq protein is located at the cell periphery. Simultaneous immunogold detection of specific markers strongly suggests that peripheral Hfq is close to the bacterial membrane. Because sRNAs regulate the synthesis of several membrane proteins, our result implies that the sRNA- and Hfq-dependent translational regulation of these proteins takes place in the cytoplasmic region underlying the membrane.

Conclusions

This finding supports the proposal that RNA processing and translational machineries dedicated to membrane protein translation may often be located in close proximity to the membrane of the bacterial cell.

Defining a role for Hfq in Gram-positive bacteria: evidence for Hfq-dependent antisense regulation in Listeria monocytogenes

Small trans-encoded RNAs (sRNAs) modulate the translation and decay of mRNAs in bacteria. In Gram-negative species, antisense regulation by trans-encoded sRNAs relies on the Sm-like protein Hfq. In contrast to this, Hfq is dispensable for sRNA-mediated riboregulation in the Gram-positive species studied thus far. Here, we provide evidence for Hfq-dependent translational repression in the Gram-positive human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, which is known to encode at least 50 sRNAs. We show that the Hfq-binding sRNA LhrA controls the translation and degradation of its target mRNA by an antisense mechanism, and that Hfq facilitates the binding of LhrA to its target. The work presented here provides the first experimental evidence for Hfq-dependent riboregulation in a Gram-positive bacterium. Our findings indicate that modulation of translation by trans-encoded sRNAs may occur by both Hfq-dependent and -independent mechanisms, thus adding another layer of complexity to sRNA-mediated riboregulation in Gram-positive species.

Structure of Escherichia coli Hfq bound to polyriboadenylate RNA

Hfq is a small, highly abundant hexameric protein that is found in many bacteria and plays a critical role in mRNA expression and RNA stability. As an "RNA chaperone," Hfq binds AU-rich sequences and facilitates the trans annealing of small RNAs (sRNAs) to their target mRNAs, typically resulting in the down-regulation of gene expression. Hfq also plays a key role in bacterial RNA decay by binding tightly to polyadenylate [poly(A)] tracts. The structural mechanism by which Hfq recognizes and binds poly(A) is unknown. Here, we report the crystal structure of Escherichia coli Hfq bound to the poly(A) RNA, A(15). The structure reveals a unique RNA binding mechanism. Unlike uridine-containing sequences, which bind to the "proximal" face, the poly(A) tract binds to the "distal" face of Hfq using 6 tripartite binding motifs. Each motif consists of an adenosine specificity site (A site), which is effected by peptide backbone hydrogen bonds, a purine nucleotide selectivity site (R site), and a sequence-nondiscriminating RNA entrance/exit site (E site). The resulting implication that Hfq can bind poly(A-R-N) triplets, where R is a purine nucleotide and N is any nucleotide, was confirmed by binding studies. Indeed, Hfq bound to the oligoribonucleotides (AGG)(8), (AGC)(8), and the shorter (A-R-N)(4) sequence, AACAACAAGAAG, with nanomolar affinities. The abundance of (A-R-N)(4) and (A-R-N)(5) triplet repeats in the E. coli genome suggests additional RNA targets for Hfq. Further, the structure provides insight into Hfq-mediated sRNA-mRNA annealing and the role of Hfq in RNA decay.

Cyanobacteria contain a structural homologue of the Hfq protein with altered RNA-binding properties

Hfq proteins are common in many species of enterobacteria, where they participate in RNA folding and translational regulation through pairing of small RNAs and messenger RNAs. Hfq proteins share the distinctive Sm fold, and form ring-shaped structures similar to those of the Sm/Lsm proteins regulating mRNA turnover in eukaryotes. However, bacterial Hfq proteins are homohexameric, whereas eukaryotic Sm/Lsm proteins are heteroheptameric. Recently, Hfq proteins with poor sequence conservation were identified in archaea and cyanobacteria. In this article, we describe crystal structures of the Hfq proteins from the cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Anabaena PCC 7120 at 1.3 and 2.3 A resolution, respectively, and show that they retain the classic Sm fold despite low sequence conservation. In addition, the intersubunit contacts and RNA-binding site are divergent, and we show biochemically that the proteins bind very weakly to known Escherichia coli Hfq target RNAs in vitro. Moreover, when expressed in E. coli, the proteins cannot mediate Hfq-dependent RNA regulation. It therefore appears that the cyanobacterial proteins constitute a specialized subfamily of Hfq proteins that bind relatively weakly to A/U-rich tracks of regulatory RNAs. The results have implications for our understanding of the evolution of the Sm fold and the Hfq proteins in the bacterial kingdom in general.

On the facultative requirement of the bacterial RNA chaperone, Hfq

The pleiotropic post-transcriptional regulator Hfq is an RNA chaperone that facilitates pairing interactions between small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) and their mRNA targets in several bacteria. However, this classical pattern, derived from the Escherichia coli model, is not applicable to the whole bacterial kingdom. In this article we discuss the facultative requirement for Hfq for sRNA-mRNA duplex formation among bacteria and the specific features of the Hfq protein and RNA duplexes that might account for the dispensability or requirement of the chaperone. Apparent links between the need for Hfq, the GC content of bacterial genomes and the free energy of experimentally validated sRNA-mRNA pairing interactions are presented.

Effect of salt and RNA structure on annealing and strand displacement by Hfq

The Sm-like protein Hfq promotes the association of small antisense RNAs (sRNAs) with their mRNA targets, but the mechanism of Hfq's RNA chaperone activity is unknown. To investigate RNA annealing and strand displacement by Hfq, we used oligonucleotides that mimic functional sequences within DsrA sRNA and the complementary rpoS mRNA. Hfq accelerated at least 100-fold the annealing of a fluorescently labeled molecular beacon to a 16-nt RNA. The rate of strand exchange between the oligonucleotides increased 80-fold. Therefore, Hfq is very active in both helix formation and exchange. However, high concentrations of Hfq destabilize the duplex by preferentially binding the single-stranded RNA. RNA binding and annealing were completely inhibited by 0.5 M salt. The target site in DsrA sRNA was 1000-fold less accessible to the molecular beacon than an unstructured oligonucleotide, and Hfq accelerated annealing with DsrA only 2-fold. These and other results are consistent with recycling of Hfq during the annealing reaction, and suggest that the net reaction depends on the relative interaction of Hfq with the products and substrates.

Hfq affects the expression of the LEE pathogenicity island in enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli

Colonization of the intestinal epithelium by enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is characterized by an attaching and effacing (A/E) histopathology. The locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) pathogenicity island encodes many genes required for the A/E phenotype including the global regulator of EHEC virulence gene expression, Ler. The LEE is subject to a complex regulatory network primarily targeting ler transcription. The RNA chaperone Hfq, implicated in post-transcriptional regulation, is an important virulence factor in many bacterial pathogens. Although post-transcriptional regulation of EHEC virulence genes is known to occur, a regulatory role of Hfq in EHEC virulence gene expression has yet to be defined. Here, we show that an hfq mutant expresses increased levels of LEE-encoded proteins prematurely, leading to earlier A/E lesion formation relative to wild type. Hfq indirectly affects LEE expression in exponential phase independent of Ler by negatively controlling levels of the regulators GrlA and GrlR through post-transcriptional regulation of the grlRA messenger. Moreover, Hfq negatively affects LEE expression in stationary phase independent of GrlA and GrlR. Altogether, Hfq plays an important role in co-ordinating the temporal expression of the LEE by controlling grlRA expression at the post-transcriptional level.

The Acinetobacter baylyi Hfq gene encodes a large protein with an unusual C terminus

In gammaproteobacteria the Hfq protein shows a great variation in size, especially in its C-terminal part. Extremely large Hfq proteins consisting of almost 200 amino acid residues and more are found within the gammaproteobacterial family Moraxellaceae. The difference in size compared to other Hfq proteins is due to a glycine-rich domain near the C-terminal end of the protein. Acinetobacter baylyi, a nonpathogenic soil bacterium and member of the Moraxellaceae encodes a large 174-amino-acid Hfq homologue containing the unique and repetitive amino acid pattern GGGFGGQ within the glycine-rich domain. Despite the presence of the C-terminal extension, A. baylyi Hfq complemented an Escherichia coli hfq mutant in vivo. By using polyclonal anti-Hfq antibodies, we detected the large A. baylyi Hfq that corresponds to its annotated size indicating the expression and stability of the full protein. Deletion of the complete A. baylyi hfq open reading frame resulted in severe reduction of growth. In addition, a deletion or overexpression of Hfq was accompanied by the loss of cell chain assembly. The glycine-rich domain was not responsible for growth and cell phenotypes. hfq gene localization in A. baylyi is strictly conserved within the mutL-miaA-hfq operon, and we show that hfq expression starts within the preceding miaA gene or further upstream.

Crystal structure of a novel Sm-like protein of putative cyanophage origin at 2.60 A resolution

ECX21941 represents a very large family (over 600 members) of novel, ocean metagenome-specific proteins identified by clustering of the dataset from the Global Ocean Sampling expedition. The crystal structure of ECX21941 reveals unexpected similarity to Sm/LSm proteins, which are important RNA-binding proteins, despite no detectable sequence similarity. The ECX21941 protein assembles as a homopentamer in solution and in the crystal structure when expressed in Escherichia coli and represents the first pentameric structure for this Sm/LSm family of proteins, although the actual oligomeric form in vivo is currently not known. The genomic neighborhood analysis of ECX21941 and its homologs combined with sequence similarity searches suggest a cyanophage origin for this protein. The specific functions of members of this family are unknown, but our structure analysis of ECX21941 indicates nucleic acid-binding capabilities and suggests a role in RNA and/or DNA processing.

Molecular characterization and identification of proteins regulated by Hfq in Neisseria meningitidis

Hfq is a highly conserved pleiotropically acting prokaryotic RNA-binding protein involved in the post-transcriptional regulation of many stress-responsive genes by small RNAs. In this study, we show that Hfq of the strictly human pathogen Neisseria meningitidis is involved in the regulation of expression of components involved in general metabolic pathways, iron metabolism and virulence. A meningococcal hfq deletion strain (H44/76Deltahfq) is impaired in growth in nutrient-rich media and does not grow at all in nutrient-limiting medium. The growth defect was complemented by expression of hfq in trans. Using proteomics, the expression of 28 proteins was found to be significantly affected upon deletion of hfq. Of these, 20 proteins are involved in general metabolism, among them seven iron-responsive genes. Two proteins (PilE, TspA) are involved in adherence to human cells, a step crucial for the onset of disease. One of the differentially expressed proteins, GdhA, was identified as an essential virulence factor for establishment of sepsis in an animal model, studied earlier. These results show that in N. meningitidis Hfq is involved in the regulation of a variety of components contributing to the survival and establishment of meningococcal disease.

Sm/Lsm genes provide a glimpse into the early evolution of the spliceosome

The spliceosome, a sophisticated molecular machine involved in the removal of intervening sequences from the coding sections of eukaryotic genes, appeared and subsequently evolved rapidly during the early stages of eukaryotic evolution. The last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) had both complex spliceosomal machinery and some spliceosomal introns, yet little is known about the early stages of evolution of the spliceosomal apparatus. The Sm/Lsm family of proteins has been suggested as one of the earliest components of the emerging spliceosome and hence provides a first in-depth glimpse into the evolving spliceosomal apparatus. An analysis of 335 Sm and Sm-like genes from 80 species across all three kingdoms of life reveals two significant observations. First, the eukaryotic Sm/Lsm family underwent two rapid waves of duplication with subsequent divergence resulting in 14 distinct genes. Each wave resulted in a more sophisticated spliceosome, reflecting a possible jump in the complexity of the evolving eukaryotic cell. Second, an unusually high degree of conservation in intron positions is observed within individual orthologous Sm/Lsm genes and between some of the Sm/Lsm paralogs. This suggests that functional spliceosomal introns existed before the emergence of the complete Sm/Lsm family of proteins; hence, spliceosomal machinery with considerably fewer components than today's spliceosome was already functional.

The spliceosome is a complex molecular machine that removes intervening sequences (introns) from mRNAs. It is unique to eukaryotes. Although prokaryotes have self-splicing introns, they completely lack spliceosomal introns and the spliceosome itself. Yet even the simplest eukaryotic organisms have introns and a rather complex spliceosomal apparatus. Little is known about how this amazing machine rapidly evolved in early eukaryotes. Here, we attempt to reconstruct a part of this evolutionary process using one of the most fundamental components of the spliceosome—the Sm and Lsm family of proteins. Using sequence and structure analysis as well as the analysis of the intron positions in Sm and Lsm genes in conjunction with a wealth of published data, we propose a plausible scenario for some aspects of spliceosomal evolution. In particular, we suggest that the Lsm family of genes could have been the first and the most essential component that allowed rudimentary splicing of early spliceosomal introns. Extensive duplications of Lsm genes and the later rise of the Sm gene family likely reflect a gradual increase in complexity of the spliceosome.