Construction and analysis of luxCDABE-based plasmid sensors for investigating N-acyl homoserine lactone-mediated quorum sensing

Quorum-sensing inhibitory compounds from extremophilic microorganisms isolated from a hypersaline cyanobacterial mat

In this study, extremely halophilic and moderately thermophilic microorganisms from a hypersaline microbial mat were screened for their ability to produce antibacterial, antidiatom, antialgal, and quorum-sensing (QS) inhibitory compounds. Five bacterial strains belonging to the genera Marinobacter and Halomonas and one archaeal strain belonging to the genus Haloterrigena were isolated from a microbial mat. The strains were able to grow at a maximum salinity of 22-25 % and a maximum temperature of 45-60 °C. Hexanes, dichloromethane, and butanol extracts from the strains inhibited the growth of at least one out of nine human pathogens. Only butanol extracts of supernatants of Halomonas sp. SK-1 inhibited growth of the microalga Dunaliella salina. Most extracts from isolates inhibited QS of the acyl homoserine lactone producer and reporter Chromobacterium violaceum CV017. Purification of QS inhibitory dichloromethane extracts of Marinobacter sp. SK-3 resulted in isolation of four related diketopiperazines (DKPs): cyclo(L-Pro-L-Phe), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Leu), cyclo(L-Pro-L-isoLeu), and cyclo(L-Pro-D-Phe). QS inhibitory properties of these DKPs were tested using C. violaceum CV017 and Escherichia coli-based QS reporters (pSB401 and pSB1075) deficient in AHL production. Cyclo(L-Pro-L-Phe) and cyclo(L-Pro-L-isoLeu) inhibited QS-dependent production of violacein by C. violaceum CV017. Cyclo(L-Pro-L-Phe), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Leu), and cyclo(L-Pro-L-isoLeu) reduced QS-dependent luminescence of the reporter E. coli pSB401 induced by 3-oxo-C6-HSL. Our study demonstrated the ability of halophilic and moderately thermophilic strains from a hypersaline microbial mat to produce biotechnologically relevant compounds that could be used as antifouling agents.

A quadruple knockout of lasIR and rhlIR of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 that retains wild-type twitching motility has equivalent infectivity and persistence to PAO1 in a mouse model of lung infection

It has been widely reported that quorum-sensing incapable strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa are less virulent than wild type strains. However, quorum sensing mutants of P. aeruginosa have been shown to develop other spontaneous mutations under prolonged culture conditions, and one of the phenotypes of P. aeruginosa that is frequently affected by this phenomenon is type IV pili-dependent motility, referred to as twitching motility. As twitching motility has been reported to be important for adhesion and colonisation, we aimed to generate a quorum-sensing knockout for which the heritage was recorded and the virulence factor production in areas unrelated to quorum sensing was known to be intact. We created a lasIRrhlIR quadruple knockout in PAO1 using a published technique that allows for the deletion of antibiotic resistance cartridges following mutagenesis, to create an unmarked QS knockout of PAO1, thereby avoiding the need for use of antibiotics in culturing, which can have subtle effects on bacterial phenotype. We phenotyped this mutant demonstrating that it produced reduced levels of protease and elastase, barely detectable levels of pyoverdin and undetectable levels of the quorum sensing signal molecules N-3-oxododecanoly-L-homoserine lactone and N-butyryl homoserine lactone, but retained full twitching motility. We then used a mouse model of acute lung infection with P. aeruginosa to demonstrate that the lasIRrhlIR knockout strain showed equal persistence to wild type parental PAO1, induced equal or greater neutrophil infiltration to the lungs, and induced similar levels of expression of inflammatory cytokines in the lungs and similar antibody responses, both in terms of magnitude and isotype. Our results suggest, in contrast to previous reports, that lack of quorum sensing alone does not significantly affect the immunogenicity, infectiveness and persistence of P. aeruginosa in a mouse model of acute lung infection.

Piper nigrum, Piper betle and Gnetum gnemon--natural food sources with anti-quorum sensing properties

Various parts of Piper nigrum, Piper betle and Gnetum gnemon are used as food sources by Malaysians. The purpose of this study is to examine the anti-quorum sensing (anti-QS) properties of P. nigrum, P. betle and G. gnemon extracts. The hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts of these plants were assessed in bioassays involving Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01, Escherichia coli [pSB401], E. coli [pSB1075] and Chromobacterium violaceum CV026. It was found that the extracts of these three plants have anti-QS ability. Interestingly, the hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts from P. betle showed the most potent anti-QS activity as judged by the bioassays. Since there is a variety of plants that serve as food sources in Malaysia that have yet to be tested for anti-QS activity, future work should focus on identification of these plants and isolation of the anti-QS compounds.

Investigating a possible role for the bacterial signal molecules N-acylhomoserine lactones in Balanus improvisus cyprid settlement

Increased settlement on bacterial biofilms has been demonstrated for a number of marine invertebrate larvae, but the nature of the cue(s) responsible is not well understood. We tested the hypothesis that the bay barnacle Balanus improvisus utilizes the bacterial signal molecules N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) as a cue for the selection of sites for permanent attachment. Single species biofilms of the AHL-producing bacteria Vibrio anguillarum, Aeromonas hydrophila and Sulfitobacter sp. BR1 were attractive to settling cypris larvae of B. improvisus. However, when AHL production was inactivated, either by mutation of the AHL synthetic genes or by expression of an AHL-degrading gene (aiiA), the ability of the bacteria to attract cyprids was abolished. In addition, cyprids actively explored biofilms of E. coli expressing the recombinant AHL synthase genes luxI from Vibrio fischeri (3-oxo-C6-HSL), rhlI from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (C4-HSL/C6-HSL), vanI from V. anguillarum (3-oxo-C10-HSL) and sulI from Sulfitobacter sp. BR1 (C4-HSL, 3-hydroxy-C6-HSL, C8-HSL and 3-hydroxy-C10-HSL), but not E. coli that did not produce AHLs. Finally, synthetic AHLs (C8-HSL, 3-oxo-C10-HSL and C12-HSL) at concentrations similar to those found within natural biofilms (5 μm) resulted in increased cyprid settlement. Thus, B. improvisus cypris exploration of and settlement on biofilms appears to be mediated by AHL-signalling bacteria in the laboratory. This adds to our understanding of how quorum sensing inhibition may be used as for biofouling control. Nonetheless, the significance of our results for larvae settling naturally in the field, and the mechanisms that underlay the observed responses to AHLs, is as yet unknown.

A metabolic regulator modulates virulence and quorum sensing signal production in Pectobacterium atrosepticum

Plant cell wall-degrading enzymes (PCWDE) are key virulence determinants in the pathogenesis of the potato pathogen Pectobacterium atrosepticum. In this study, we report the impact on virulence of a transposon insertion mutation in the metJ gene that codes for the repressor of the methionine biosynthesis regulon. In a mutant strain defective for the small regulatory RNA rsmB, PCWDE are not produced and virulence in potato tubers is almost totally abolished. However, when the metJ gene is disrupted in this background, the rsmB(-) phenotype is suppressed and virulence and PCWDE production are restored. Additionally, when metJ is disrupted, production of the quorum-sensing signal, N-(3-oxohexanoyl)-homoserine lactone, is increased. The metJ mutant strains showed pleiotropic transcriptional impacts affecting approximately a quarter of the genome. Genes involved in methionine biosynthesis were most highly upregulated but many virulence-associated transcripts were also upregulated. This is the first report of the impact of the MetJ repressor on virulence in bacteria.

Parallel in vivo DNA assembly by recombination: experimental demonstration and theoretical approaches

The development of synthetic biology requires rapid batch construction of large gene networks from combinations of smaller units. Despite the availability of computational predictions for well-characterized enzymes, the optimization of most synthetic biology projects requires combinational constructions and tests. A new building-brick-style parallel DNA assembly framework for simple and flexible batch construction is presented here. It is based on robust recombination steps and allows a variety of DNA assembly techniques to be organized for complex constructions (with or without scars). The assembly of five DNA fragments into a host genome was performed as an experimental demonstration.

Coral-associated bacteria, quorum sensing disrupters, and the regulation of biofouling

Marine biofouling, the settlement of microorganisms and macroorganisms on structures submerged in seawater, although economically detrimental, is a successful strategy for survival in hostile environments, where coordinated bacterial communities establish biofilms via the regulation of quorum sensing (QS) communication systems. The inhibition of QS activity among bacteria isolated from different coral species was investigated to gain further insight into its potency in the attenuation, or even the prevention, of undesirable biofouling on marine organisms. It is hypothesized that coral mucus/microorganism interactions are competitive, suggesting that the dominant communities secrete QS disruptive compounds. One hundred and twenty bacterial isolates were collected from healthy coral species and screened for their ability to inhibit QS using three bioreporter strains. Approximately 12, 11, and 24% of the isolates exhibited anti-QS activity against Escherichia coli pSB1075, Chromobacterium violaceum CV026, and Agrobacterium tumefaciens KYC55 indicator strains, respectively. Isolates with positive activity against the bioluminescent monitor strains were scanned via a cytotoxic/genotoxic, E. coli TV1061 and DPD2794 antimicrobial panel. Isolates detected by C. violaceum CV026 and A. tumefaciens KYC55 reporter strains were tested for their ability to inhibit the growth of these reporter strains, which were found to be unaffected. Tests of the Favia sp. coral isolate Fav 2-50-7 (>98% similarity to Vibrio harveyi) for its ability to attenuate the formation of biofilm showed extensive inhibitory activity against biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii. To ascertain the stability and general structure of the active compound, cell-free culture supernatants exposed to an increasing temperature gradient or to digestion by proteinase K, were shown to maintain potent QS attenuation and the ability to inhibit the growth of biofilms. Mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of a low molecular mass compound. The anti-QS strategy exemplified in the coral mucus is a model with potentially wide applications, including countering the ecological threat posed by biofilms. Manipulating synchronized bacterial behavior by detecting new QS inhibitors will facilitate the discovery of new antifouling compounds.

Identification of Burkholderia cenocepacia strain H111 virulence factors using nonmammalian infection hosts

Burkholderia cenocepacia H111, a strain isolated from a cystic fibrosis patient, has been shown to effectively kill the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We used the C. elegans model of infection to screen a mini-Tn5 mutant library of B. cenocepacia H111 for attenuated virulence. Of the approximately 5,500 B. cenocepacia H111 random mini-Tn5 insertion mutants that were screened, 22 showed attenuated virulence in C. elegans. Except for the quorum-sensing regulator cepR, none of the mutated genes coded for the biosynthesis of classical virulence factors such as extracellular proteases or siderophores. Instead, the mutants contained insertions in metabolic and regulatory genes. Mutants attenuated in virulence in the C. elegans infection model were also tested in the Drosophila melanogaster pricking model, and those also attenuated in this model were further tested in Galleria mellonella. Six of the 22 mutants were attenuated in D. melanogaster, and five of these were less pathogenic in the G. mellonella model. We show that genes encoding enzymes of the purine, pyrimidine, and shikimate biosynthesis pathways are critical for virulence in multiple host models of infection.

Inactivation of the transcriptional regulator-encoding gene sdiA enhances rice root colonization and biofilm formation in Enterobacter cloacae GS1

Enterobacter cloacae GS1 is a plant growth-promoting bacterium which colonizes rice roots. In the rhizosphere environment, N-acyl homoserine lactone (NAHL)-like quorum-sensing signals are known to be produced by host plants and other microbial inhabitants. E. cloacae GS1 was unable to synthesize NAHL quorum-sensing signals but had the NAHL-dependent transcriptional regulator-encoding gene sdiA. This study was aimed at understanding the effects of SdiA and NAHL-dependent cross talk in rice root colonization by E. cloacae GS1. Pleiotropic effects of sdiA inactivation included substantial increases in root colonization and biofilm formation, suggesting a negative role for SdiA in bacterial adhesion. We provide evidence that sdiA inactivation leads to elevated levels of biosynthesis of curli, which is involved in cellular adhesion. Extraneous addition of NAHLs had a negative effect on root colonization and biofilm formation. However, the sdiA mutant of E. cloacae GS1 was insensitive to NAHLs, suggesting that this NAHL-induced inhibition of root colonization and biofilm formation is SdiA dependent. Therefore, it is proposed that NAHLs produced by both plant and microbes in the rice rhizosphere act as cross-kingdom and interspecies signals to negatively impact cellular adhesion and, thereby, root colonization in E. cloacae GS1.

The Pseudomonas aeruginosa N-acylhomoserine lactone quorum sensing molecules target IQGAP1 and modulate epithelial cell migration

Quorum sensing (QS) signaling allows bacteria to control gene expression once a critical population density is achieved. The Gram-negative human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHL) as QS signals, which coordinate the production of virulence factors and biofilms. These bacterial signals can also modulate human cell behavior. Little is known about the mechanisms of the action of AHL on their eukaryotic targets. Here, we found that N-3-oxo-dodecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone 3O-C₁₂-HSL modulates human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cell migration in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Using new 3O-C₁₂-HSL biotin and fluorescently-tagged probes for LC-MS/MS and confocal imaging, respectively, we demonstrated for the first time that 3O-C₁₂-HSL interacts and co-localizes with the IQ-motif-containing GTPase-activating protein IQGAP1 in Caco-2 cells. The interaction between IQGAP1 and 3O-C₁₂-HSL was further confirmed by pull-down assay using a GST-tagged protein with subsequent Western blot of IQGAP1 and by identifying 3O-C₁₂-HSL with a sensor bioassay. Moreover, 3O-C₁₂-HSL induced changes in the phosphorylation status of Rac1 and Cdc42 and the localization of IQGAP1 as evidenced by confocal and STED microscopy and Western blots. Our findings suggest that the IQGAP1 is a novel partner for P.aeruginosa 3O-C₁₂-HSL and likely the integrator of Rac1 and Cdc42- dependent altered cell migration. We propose that the targeting of IQGAP1 by 3O-C₁₂-HSL can trigger essential changes in the cytoskeleton network and be an essential component in bacterial – human cell communication.

The human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other bacteria communicate with each other using quorum sensing (QS). This is important for their growth, virulence, motility and the formation of biofilms. Furthermore, eukaryotic cells “listen and respond” to QS signaling, but the exact mechanisms and receptors on mammalian cells have not been identified. We have previously shown that N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHL) alter epithelial barrier functions and increase chemotaxis in human neutrophils. We show here that 3O-C₁₂-HSL modulates the migration of epithelial cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Using newly designed and validated biotin- and fluorescein-based 3O-C₁₂-HSL probes we identified the IQ-motif-containing GTPase-activating protein IQGAP1 as a human target of 3O-C₁₂-HSL. We propose that the interaction between IQGAP1 and 3O-C₁₂-HSL provides a novel mechanism for its mode of action on eukaryotic cells, and by affecting the distribution of IQGAP1 and phosphorylation of Rac1 and Cdc42, upstream effectors of filamentous actin remodeling, also cell migration. We suggest that recognition of IQGAP1 by 3O-C₁₂-HSL is a very early event in the communication between bacteria and human epithelial cells.

Perceiving the chemical language of Gram-negative bacteria: listening by high-resolution mass spectrometry

Gram-negative bacteria use N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) as their command language to coordinate population behavior during invasion and colonization of higher organisms. Although many different bacterial bioreporters are available for AHLs monitoring, in which a phenotypic response, e.g. bioluminescence, violacin production, and β-galactosidase activity, is exploited, mass spectrometry (MS) is the most versatile detector for rapid analysis of AHLs in complex microbial samples, with or without prior separation steps. In this paper we critically review recent advances in the application of high-resolution MS to analysis of the quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecules used by Gram-negative bacteria, with much emphasis on AHLs. A critical review of the use of bioreporters in the study of AHLs is followed by a short methodological survey of the capabilities of high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), including Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) MS and quadrupole time-of-flight (qTOF) MS. Use of infusion electrospray ultrahigh-resolution FTICR MS (12 Tesla) enables accurate mass measurements for determination of the elemental formulas of AHLs in Acidovorax sp. N35 and Burkholderia ubonensis AB030584. Results obtained by coupling liquid chromatography with a hybrid quadrupole linear ion trap-FTICR mass spectrometer (LC-LTQ-FTICRMS, 7-T) for characterization of acylated homoserine lactones in the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa are presented. UPLC-ESI-qTOF MS has also proved to be suitable for identification of 3O-C(10)HSL in Pseudomonas putida IsoF cell culture supernatant. Aspects of sample preparation and the avoidance of analytical pitfalls are also emphasized.

Detection of quorum sensing signal molecules and identification of an autoinducer synthase gene among biofilm forming clinical isolates of Acinetobacter spp

Background

Quorum sensing is a term that describes an environmental sensing system that allows bacteria to monitor their own population density which contributes significantly to the size and development of the biofilm. Many gram negative bacteria use N-acyl-homoserine lactones as quorum sensing signal molecules. In this study, we sought to find out if the biofilm formation among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter spp. is under the control of autoinducing quorum sensing molecules.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Biofilm formation among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter spp. was assessed and the production of signal molecules were detected with Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 biosensor system. Characterisation of autoinducers was carried out by mass spectrometric analysis. We have also reported the identification of an autoinducer synthase gene, abaΙ among the isolates that produce quorum sensing signal molecules and have reported that the mutation in the abaI gene influences their biofilm forming capabilities. Using a microtitre-plate assay it was shown that 60% of the 50 Acinetobacter spp. isolates significantly formed biofilms. Further detection with the biosensor strain showed that some of these isolates produced long chain signal molecules. Mass spectrometric analysis revealed that five of these isolates produced N-decanoyl homoserine lactone and two isolates produced acyl-homoserine lactone with a chain length equal to C₁₂. The abaΙ gene was identified and a tetracycline mutant of the abaΙ gene was created and the inhibition in biofilm formation in the mutant was shown.

Conclusions/Significance

These data are of great significance as the signal molecules aid in biofilm formation which in turn confer various properties of pathogenicity to the clinical isolates including drug resistance. The use of quorum sensing signal blockers to attenuate bacterial pathogenicity is therefore highly attractive, particularly with respect to the emergence of multi antibiotic resistant bacteria.

A convenient and robust in vivo reporter system to monitor gene expression in the human pathogen Helicobacter pylori

Thirty years of intensive research have significantly contributed to our understanding of Helicobacter pylori biology and pathogenesis. However, the lack of convenient genetic tools, in particular the limited effectiveness of available reporter systems, has notably limited the toolbox for fundamental and applied studies. Here, we report the construction of a bioluminescent H. pylori reporter system based on the Photorhabdus luminescens luxCDABE cassette. The system is constituted of a promoterless lux acceptor strain in which promoters and sequences of interest can be conveniently introduced by double homologous recombination of a suicide transformation vector. We validate the robustness of this new lux reporter system in noninvasive in vivo monitoring of dynamic transcriptional responses of inducible as well as repressible promoters and demonstrate its suitability for the implementation of genetic screens in H. pylori.

Genomic variation among contemporary Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from chronically infected cystic fibrosis patients

The airways of individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF) often become chronically infected with unique strains of the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Several lines of evidence suggest that the infecting P. aeruginosa lineage diversifies in the CF lung niche, yet so far this contemporary diversity has not been investigated at a genomic level. In this work, we sequenced the genomes of pairs of randomly selected contemporary isolates sampled from the expectorated sputum of three chronically infected adult CF patients. Each patient was infected by a distinct strain of P. aeruginosa. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and insertions/deletions (indels) were identified in the DNA common to the paired isolates from different patients. The paired isolates from one patient differed due to just 1 SNP and 8 indels. The paired isolates from a second patient differed due to 54 SNPs and 38 indels. The pair of isolates from the third patient both contained a mutS mutation, which conferred a hypermutator phenotype; these isolates cumulatively differed due to 344 SNPs and 93 indels. In two of the pairs of isolates, a different accessory genome composition, specifically integrated prophage, was identified in one but not the other isolate of each pair. We conclude that contemporary isolates from a single sputum sample can differ at the SNP, indel, and accessory genome levels and that the cross-sectional genomic variation among coeval pairs of P. aeruginosa CF isolates can be comparable to the variation previously reported to differentiate between paired longitudinally sampled isolates.

Investigating the effect of antibiotics on quorum sensing with whole-cell biosensing systems

Quorum sensing (QS) allows bacteria to communicate with one another by means of QS signaling molecules and control certain behaviors in a group-based manner, including pathogenicity and biofilm formation. Bacterial gut microflora may play a role in inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis, and antibiotics are one of the available therapeutic options for Crohn's disease. In the present study, we employed genetically engineered bioluminescent bacterial whole-cell sensing systems as a tool to evaluate the ability of antibiotics commonly employed in the treatment of chronic inflammatory conditions to interfere with QS. We investigated the effect of ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and tinidazole on quorum sensing. Several concentrations of individual antibiotics were allowed to interact with two different types of bacterial sensing cells, in both the presence and absence of a fixed concentration of N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) QS molecules. The antibiotic effect was then determined by monitoring the biosensor's bioluminescence response. Ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and tinidazole exhibited a dose-dependent augmentation in the response of both bacterial sensing systems, thus showing an AHL-like effect. Additionally, such an augmentation was observed, in both the presence and absence of AHL. The data obtained indicate that ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and tinidazole may interfere with bacterial communication systems. The results suggest that these antibiotics, at the concentrations tested, may themselves act as bacterial signaling molecules. The beneficial effect of these antibiotics in the treatment of intestinal inflammation may be due, at least in part, to their effect on QS-related bacterial behavior in the gut.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa possesses two putative type I signal peptidases, LepB and PA1303, each with distinct roles in physiology and virulence

Type I signal peptidases (SPases) cleave signal peptides from proteins during translocation across biological membranes and hence play a vital role in cellular physiology. SPase activity is also of fundamental importance to the pathogenesis of infection for many bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which utilizes a variety of secreted virulence factors, such as proteases and toxins. P. aeruginosa possesses two noncontiguous SPase homologues, LepB (PA0768) and PA1303, which share 43% amino acid identity. Reverse transcription (RT)-PCR showed that both proteases were expressed, while a FRET-based assay using a peptide based on the signal sequence cleavage region of the secreted LasB elastase showed that recombinant LepB and PA1303 enzymes were both active. LepB is positioned within a genetic locus that resembles the locus containing the extensively characterized SPase of E. coli and is of similar size and topology. It was also shown to be essential for viability and to have high sequence identity with SPases from other pseudomonads (≥ 78%). In contrast, PA1303, which is small for a Gram-negative SPase (20 kDa), was found to be dispensable. Mutation of PA1303 resulted in an altered protein secretion profile and increased N-butanoyl homoserine lactone production and influenced several quorum-sensing-controlled phenotypic traits, including swarming motility and the production of rhamnolipid and elastinolytic activity. The data indicate different cellular roles for these P. aeruginosa SPase paralogues; the role of PA1303 is integrated with the quorum-sensing cascade and includes the suppression of virulence factor secretion and virulence-associated phenotypes, while LepB is the primary SPase.

Quorum sensing signaling molecules produced by reference and emerging soft-rot bacteria (Dickeya and Pectobacterium spp.)

Background

Several small diffusible molecules are involved in bacterial quorum sensing and virulence. The production of autoinducers-1 and -2, quinolone, indole and γ-amino butyrate signaling molecules was investigated in a set of soft-rot bacteria belonging to six Dickeya or Pectobacterium species including recent or emerging potato isolates.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using bacterial biosensors, immunoassay, and chromatographic analysis, we showed that soft-rot bacteria have the common ability to produce transiently during their exponential phase of growth the N-3-oxo-hexanoyl- or the N-3-oxo-octanoyl-l-homoserine lactones and a molecule of the autoinducer-2 family. Dickeya spp. produced in addition the indole-3-acetic acid in tryptophan-rich conditions. All these signaling molecules have been identified for the first time in the novel Dickeya solani species. In contrast, quinolone and γ-amino butyrate signals were not identified and the corresponding synthases are not present in the available genomes of soft-rot bacteria. To determine if the variations of signal production according to growth phase could result from expression modifications of the corresponding synthase gene, the respective mRNA levels were estimated by reverse transcriptase-PCR. While the N-acyl-homoserine lactone production is systematically correlated to the synthase expression, that of the autoinducer-2 follows the expression of an enzyme upstream in the activated methyl cycle and providing its precursor, rather than the expression of its own synthase.

Conclusions/Significance

Despite sharing the S-adenosylmethionine precursor, no strong link was detected between the production kinetics or metabolic pathways of autoinducers-1 and -2. In contrast, the signaling pathway of autoinducer-2 seems to be switched off by the indole-3-acetic acid pathway under tryptophan control. It therefore appears that the two genera of soft-rot bacteria have similarities but also differences in the mechanisms of communication via the diffusible molecules. Our results designate autoinducer-1 lactones as the main targets for a global biocontrol of soft-rot bacteria communications, including those of emerging isolates.

Diketopiperazines produced by the halophilic archaeon, Haloterrigena hispanica, activate AHL bioreporters

The generic term "quorum sensing" has been adopted to describe the bacterial cell-to-cell communication mechanism which coordinates gene expression when the population has reached a high cell density. Quorum sensing depends on the synthesis of small molecules that diffuse in and out of bacterial cells. There are few reports about this mechanism in Archaea. We report the isolation and chemical characterization of small molecules belonging to class of diketopiperazines (DKPs) in Haloterrigena hispanica, an extremely halophilic archaeon. One of the DKPs isolated, the compound cyclo-(L-prolyl-L-valine) activated N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) bioreporters, indicating that Archaea may have the ability to interact with AHL-producing bacteria within mixed communities.

Silencing quorum sensing through extracts of Melicope lunu-ankenda

Quorum sensing regulates bacterial virulence determinants, therefore making it an interesting target to attenuate pathogens. In this work, we screened edible, endemic plants in Malaysia for anti-quorum sensing properties. Extracts from Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T. G. Hartley, a Malay garden salad, inhibited response of Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 to N-hexanoylhomoserine lactone, thus interfering with violacein production; reduced bioluminescence expression of E. coli [pSB401], disrupted pyocyanin synthesis, swarming motility and expression of lecA::lux of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Although the chemical nature of the anti-QS compounds from M. lunu-ankenda is currently unknown, this study proves that endemic Malaysian plants could serve as leads in the search for anti-quorum sensing compounds.

Inhibition of quorum sensing-controlled virulence factor production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 by Ayurveda spice clove (Syzygium aromaticum) bud extract

Quorum sensing controls the virulence determinants in most proteobacteria. In this work, the hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts of an Ayurveda spice, namely clove (Syzygium aromaticum), shown anti-quorum sensing activity. Hexane and methanol extracts of clove inhibited the response of C. violaceum CV026 to exogenously supplied N‐hexanoylhomoserine lactone, in turn preventing violacein production. Chloroform and methanol extracts of clove significantly reduced bioluminescence production by E. coli [pSB1075] grown in the presence of N-(3-oxododecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone. We demonstrated that clove extract inhibited quorum sensing-regulated phenotypes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01, including expression of lecA::lux (by hexane extract), swarming (maximum inhibition by methanol extract), pyocyanin (maximum inhibition by hexane extract). This study shows that the presence of natural compounds that exhibit anti-quorum sensing activity in the clove extracts may be useful as the lead of anti-infective drugs.

A variant quorum sensing system in Aeromonas veronii MTCC 3249

We have investigated the quorum sensing control in Aeromonas veronii MTCC 3249, originally isolated as A. culicicola from the midgut of Culex quinquefasciatus. Based on biosensor assays, the bacterium showed constant production of multiple acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) with increasing cell-density. The luxRI gene homologs, acuR (A. culicicola transcriptional Regulator) and acuI (A. culicicola autoInducer) were successfully amplified by inverse-PCR. Sequence analysis indicated acuRI were divergent from all known quorum sensing gene homologs in Aeromonas. Two localized regions in the C-terminal autoinducer binding domain of acuR showed indels suggesting variations in autoinducer specificity. Further, only a single copy of the quorum sensing genes was detected, suggesting a tight regulation of mechanisms under its control. Chromatography and further chemical analysis identified two AHLs in the culture supernatant: 6-carboxy-HHL (homoadipyl homoserine lactone), a novel AHL, and N-tetradecanoylhomoserine lactone. The existence of a potentially variant quorum sensing system might therefore, reflect in some way the ecological strategies adopted by this bacterium in the mosquito midgut.

N-acyl homoserine lactone production by Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from human tongue surface

Bacteria communicate by producing quorum sensing molecules called autoinducers, which include autoinducer-1, an N-hexanoyl homoserine lactone (AHL), and autoinducer-2. Bacteria present in the human oral cavity have been shown to produce autoinducer-2, but not AHL. Here, we report the isolation of two AHL-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae strains from the posterior dorsal surface of the tongue of a healthy individual. Spent culture supernatant extracts from K. pneumoniae activated the biosensors Agrobacterium tumefaciens NTL4(pZLR4) and Escherichia coli [pSB401], suggesting the presence of both long and short chain AHLs. High resolution mass spectrometry analyses of these extracts confirmed that both K. pneumoniae isolates produced N-octanoylhomoserine lactone and N-3-dodecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the isolation of K. pneumoniae from the posterior dorsal surface of the human tongue and the production of these AHLs by this bacterium.

Engineered cells as biosensing systems in biomedical analysis

Over the past two decades there have been great advances in biotechnology, including use of nucleic acids, proteins, and whole cells to develop a variety of molecular analytical tools for diagnostic, screening, and pharmaceutical applications. Through manipulation of bacterial plasmids and genomes, bacterial whole-cell sensing systems have been engineered that can serve as novel methods for analyte detection and characterization, and as more efficient and cost-effective alternatives to traditional analytical techniques. Bacterial cell-based sensing systems are typically sensitive, specific and selective, rapid, easy to use, low-cost, and amenable to multiplexing, high-throughput, and miniaturization for incorporation into portable devices. This critical review is intended to provide an overview of available bacterial whole-cell sensing systems for assessment of a variety of clinically relevant analytes. Specifically, we examine whole-cell sensing systems for detection of bacterial quorum sensing molecules, organic and inorganic toxic compounds, and drugs, and for screening of antibacterial compounds for identification of their mechanisms of action. Methods used in the design and development of whole-cell sensing systems are also reviewed.

The GtaR protein negatively regulates transcription of the gtaRI operon and modulates gene transfer agent (RcGTA) expression in Rhodobacter capsulatus

The gtaI gene of Rhodobacter capsulatus encodes an N-acyl-homoserine lactone (acyl-HSL) synthase. Immediately 5' of the gtaI gene is ORF rcc00328 that encodes a potential acyl-HSL receptor protein. A combination of genetic and biochemical approaches showed that rcc00328 (renamed gtaR) modulates the production of a genetic exchange element called the gene transfer agent (RcGTA), and regulates the transcription of gtaI. Although gtaI mutants exhibited decreased levels of RcGTA production, mutagenesis of gtaR did not, whereas a gtaR/gtaI double mutant produced wild-type levels of RcGTA. Because mutagenesis of gtaR suppressed the effect of the gtaI mutation, we suggest that the GtaR protein is a negative transcriptional regulator of RcGTA gene expression. We discovered that the gtaR and gtaI genes are co-transcribed, and also negatively regulated by the GtaR protein in the absence of acyl-HSL. A His-tagged GtaR protein was purified, and DNA-binding experiments revealed a binding site in the promoter region of the gtaRI operon. This GtaR protein did not bind to the RcGTA promoter region, and therefore modulation of RcGTA production appears to require at least one additional factor. We found that RcGTA production was stimulated by spent media from other species, and identified exogenous acyl-HSLs that induce RcGTA.

The bacterial cytoskeleton modulates motility, type 3 secretion, and colonization in Salmonella

Although there have been great advances in our understanding of the bacterial cytoskeleton, major gaps remain in our knowledge of its importance to virulence. In this study we have explored the contribution of the bacterial cytoskeleton to the ability of Salmonella to express and assemble virulence factors and cause disease. The bacterial actin-like protein MreB polymerises into helical filaments and interacts with other cytoskeletal elements including MreC to control cell-shape. As mreB appears to be an essential gene, we have constructed a viable ΔmreC depletion mutant in Salmonella. Using a broad range of independent biochemical, fluorescence and phenotypic screens we provide evidence that the Salmonella pathogenicity island-1 type three secretion system (SPI1-T3SS) and flagella systems are down-regulated in the absence of MreC. In contrast the SPI-2 T3SS appears to remain functional. The phenotypes have been further validated using a chemical genetic approach to disrupt the functionality of MreB. Although the fitness of ΔmreC is reduced in vivo, we observed that this defect does not completely abrogate the ability of Salmonella to cause disease systemically. By forcing on expression of flagella and SPI-1 T3SS in trans with the master regulators FlhDC and HilA, it is clear that the cytoskeleton is dispensable for the assembly of these structures but essential for their expression. As two-component systems are involved in sensing and adapting to environmental and cell surface signals, we have constructed and screened a panel of such mutants and identified the sensor kinase RcsC as a key phenotypic regulator in ΔmreC. Further genetic analysis revealed the importance of the Rcs two-component system in modulating the expression of these virulence factors. Collectively, these results suggest that expression of virulence genes might be directly coordinated with cytoskeletal integrity, and this regulation is mediated by the two-component system sensor kinase RcsC.

Salmonella are major global pathogens responsible for causing food-borne disease. In recent years the existence of a cytoskeleton in prokaryotes has received much attention. In this study the Salmonella cytoskeleton has been genetically disrupted, causing changes in morphology, motility and expression of key virulence factors. We provide evidence that the sensory protein RcsC detects changes at the cell surface caused by the disintegration of the bacterial cytoskeleton and modulates expression of key virulence factors. This study provides insights into the importance of the integrity of the bacterial cytoskeleton in the ability of Salmonella to cause disease, and thus may provide a novel target for antimicrobial drugs or vaccines.

Impacts of quorum sensing on microbial metabolism and human health

Bacteria were considered to be lonely 'mutes' for hundreds of years. However, recently it was found that bacteria usually coordinate their behaviors at the population level by producing (speaking), sensing (listening), and responding to small signal molecules. This so-called quorum sensing (QS) regulation enables bacteria to live in a 'society' with cell-cell communication and controls many important bacterial behaviors. In this chapter, QS systems and their signal molecules for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria are introduced. Most interestingly, QS regulates the important bacterial behaviors such as metabolism and pathogenesis. QS-regulated microbial metabolism includes antibiotic synthesis, pollutant biodegradation, and bioenergy production, which are very relevant to human health. QS is also well-known for its involvement in bacterial pathogenesis, such as iin nfections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Novel disease diagnosis strategies and antimicrobial agents have also been developed based on QS regulation on bacterial infections. In addition, to meet the requirements for the detection/quantification of QS signaling molecules for research and application, different biosensors have been constructed, which will also be reviewed here. QS regulation is essential to bacterial survival and important to human health. A better understanding of QS could lead better control/manipulation of bacteria, thus making them more helpful to people.

Detection of acylated homoserine lactones produced by Vibrio spp. and related species isolated from water and aquatic organisms

AIMS

To assess the diversity in production of acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs) among Vibrio spp and related species.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 106 isolates, with representatives of 28 Vibrio spp and related species, were investigated for the production of AHLs. For this, a rapid method for the screening of AHLs was developed based on the use of bacterial biosensors using a double-layer microplate assay. At least one bacterial biosensor was activated in 20 species, Agrobacterium tumefaciens being the most frequently activated biosensor. One isolate of Vibrio anguillarum, Vibrio rotiferianus and Vibrio metschnikovii activated the Chromobacterium violaceum biosensor, which is not common among the Vibrionaceae family. For those species with more than one isolate, the biosensor activation profile was the same except for two species, V. anguillarum and V. metschnikovii, which varied among the different isolates.

CONCLUSIONS

AHL production was observed in the majority of the studied species, with a diverse biosensor activation profile.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The high diversity in AHL production is in consistence with the high diversity in ecological niches of the Vibrionaceae family. The absence of AHL detection in eight species warrants further work on their quorum-sensing systems.

A novel property of propolis (bee glue): anti-pathogenic activity by inhibition of N-acyl-homoserine lactone mediated signaling in bacteria

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

An alternative approach to antibiotics is the development of anti-pathogenic agents to control the bacterial virulome. Such anti-pathogenic agents could target a phenomena known as quorum sensing (QS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six bacterial N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL)-dependent bioreporter strains were used to evaluate if bee hive glue also known as propolis contains constituents capable of inhibiting QS-controlled AHL signaling. In addition, the effect of propolis on the QS-dependent swarming motility was evaluated with the opportunisitic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

RESULTS

Differences in the propolis tincture samples were identified by physiochemical profiles and absorption spectra. Propolis tinctures at 0.0005% (v/v) that do not affect bacteria biosensor growth or the reporter system monitored were exposed to biosensors with and without the addition an AHL. No AHL signal mimics were found to be present in the propolis tinctures. However, when propolis and an inducer AHL signal were together exposed to five Escherichia coli and a Chromobacterium violaceum biosensor, propolis disrupted the QS bacterial signaling system in liquid- and agar-based bioassays and in C(18) reverse-phase thin-layer plate assays. Swarming motility in the opportunistic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 and its AHL-dependent LasR- and RhlR-based QS behaviors were also inhibited by propolis.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, we present evidence that propolis contain compounds that suppress QS responses. In this regard, anti-pathogenic compounds from bee harvested propolis could be identified and isolated and thus will be valuable for the further development of therapeutics to disrupt QS signaling systems which regulate the virulome in many pathogenic bacteria.

The hanR/hanI quorum-sensing system of Halomonas anticariensis, a moderately halophilic bacterium

Quorum sensing is a cell density-dependent gene expression mechanism found in many Gram-negative bacteria which involves the production of signal molecules such as N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs). One significant group of micro-organisms in which quorum sensing has not been previously studied, however, are the moderate halophiles. We describe here the results of our studies of the quorum-sensing system in Halomonas anticariensis FP35T, which is composed of luxR/luxI homologues: hanR (the putative transcriptional regulator gene) and hanI (the autoinducer synthase gene). To understand how the hanR/hanI system is organized and regulated we conducted RT-PCR and quantitative real-time PCR assays. Transcriptional analysis indicated that the hanR and hanI genes are on the same transcript and that their transcription is growth phase-dependent. HanI seems to be the only autoinducer synthase responsible for the synthesis of AHLs by the bacterium, since the inactivation of hanI resulted in the complete loss of its AHLs. We also found that the hanI gene appears to be transcribed from its own promoter and that its expression does not depend upon HanR. This finding was supported by the fact that the FP35hanR mutant showed AHL-producing activity and hanI expression similar to that of the wild-type strain, the latter being measured by RT-PCR. Moreover, hanR is expressed from its own promoter and appears to be independent of the AHL signalling molecules produced by HanI.

Acylhomoserine lactone production by bacteria associated with cultivated mushrooms

The main bacterial pathogens of cultivated mushroom as well as mushroom-associated bacteria, which were isolated from Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus eryngii mushroom niches, were evaluated for the production of N-acyl-L-homoserine lactones (AHLs) by using four bioreporters. Furthermore, identification of AHLs by LC-ESI-FTICR MS was performed on culture filtrates of selected pathogens and mushroom-associated bacteria strains, which resulted in inducing at least one of the four bioreporters. Strains of Burkolderia gladioli pv. agariciola, Pseudomonas agarici and Pseudomonas gingeri, but not those of Pseudomonas tolaasii and Pseudomonas reactans, produced an array of AHLs depending on the strain. This is the first report of AHL production by mushroom bacterial pathogens. Forty-four of 236 bacterial isolates obtained from different niches of cultivated mushrooms, in part identified by the Biolog identification system, were demonstrated to produce AHLs. Among them, seven mushroom-associated bacterial species were for the first time demonstrated to produce the above signal molecules. In the culture filtrates of a certain number of isolates/strains the AHL-hydrolyzed forms were also present. The minimal signal inducing concentration (MSIC) of selected pure AHLs was also determined for the four bioreporters used in this study.

N-acyl-homoserine lactone confers resistance toward biotrophic and hemibiotrophic pathogens via altered activation of AtMPK6

Pathogenic and symbiotic bacteria rely on quorum sensing to coordinate the collective behavior during the interactions with their eukaryotic hosts. Many Gram-negative bacteria use N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) as signals in such communication. Here we show that plants have evolved means to perceive AHLs and that the length of acyl moiety and the functional group at the γ position specify the plant's response. Root treatment with the N-3-oxo-tetradecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (oxo-C14-HSL) reinforced the systemic resistance to the obligate biotrophic fungi Golovinomyces orontii in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei in barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants. In addition, oxo-C14-HSL-treated Arabidopsis plants were more resistant toward the hemibiotrophic bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000. Oxo-C14-HSL promoted a stronger activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases AtMPK3 and AtMPK6 when challenged with flg22, followed by a higher expression of the defense-related transcription factors WRKY22 and WRKY29, as well as the PATHOGENESIS-RELATED1 gene. In contrast to wild-type Arabidopsis and mpk3 mutant, the mpk6 mutant is compromised in the AHL effect, suggesting that AtMPK6 is required for AHL-induced resistance. Results of this study show that AHLs commonly produced in the rhizosphere are crucial factors in plant pathology and could be an agronomic issue whose full impact has to be elucidated in future analyses.

Inhibition of marine biofouling by bacterial quorum sensing inhibitors

Seventy eight natural products from chemical libraries containing compounds from marine organisms (sponges, algae, fungi, tunicates and cyanobacteria) and terrestrial plants, were screened for the inhibition of bacterial quorum sensing (QS) using a reporter strain Chromobacterium violaceum CV017. About half of the natural products did not show any QS inhibition. Twenty four percent of the tested compounds inhibited QS of the reporter without causing toxicity. The QS inhibitory activities of the most potent and abundant compounds were further investigated using the LuxR-based reporter E. coli pSB401 and the LasR-based reporter E. coli pSB1075. Midpacamide and tenuazonic acid were toxic to the tested reporters. QS-dependent luminescence of the LasR-based reporter, which is normally induced by N-3-oxo-dodecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone, was reduced by demethoxy encecalin and hymenialdisin at concentrations >6.6 μM and 15 μM, respectively. Hymenialdisin, demethoxy encecalin, microcolins A and B and kojic acid inhibited responses of the LuxR-based reporter induced by N-3-oxo-hexanoyl-L-homoserine lactone at concentrations >0.2 μM, 2.2 μM, 1.5 μM, 15 μM and 36 μM, respectively. The ability to prevent microfouling by one of the compounds screened in this study (kojic acid; final concentrations 330 μM and 1 mM) was tested in a controlled mesocosm experiment. Kojic acid inhibited formation of microbial communities on glass slides, decreasing the densities of bacteria and diatoms in comparison with the control lacking kojic acid. The study suggests that natural products with QS inhibitory properties can be used for controlling biofouling communities.

Identification of unsaturated N-acylhomoserine lactones in bacterial isolates of Rhodobacter sphaeroides by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-hybrid linear ion trap-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry

The identification of two unsaturated N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) produced by Rhodobacter sphaeroides bacteria, based on liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to a hybrid quadrupole linear ion trap (LTQ)-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) mass spectrometer upon electrospray ionization (ESI), is presented. Besides the confirmation of the signaling molecule already described in the literature, i.e. (Z)-N-tetradec-7-enoyl-homoserine lactone (C(14:1)-HSL), we have discovered the occurrence, at low, yet significant levels, of another monounsaturated compound, C(12:1) -HSL, which may extend the number of small diffusible chemical signals known for R. sphaeroides. Both unsaturated AHLs were identified by high-resolution FTICR mass spectrometry in extracts of bacterial culture media and the occurrence of a C=C bond was assessed upon their conversion into bromohydrins. Collision-induced dissociation (CID) spectra were then collected on the LTQ mass analyzer. A careful comparison of tandem MS spectra of monounsaturated (i.e., C(12:1)-HSL and C(14:1)-HSL) and saturated AHLs (i.e. C(12)-HSL and C(14)-HSL) led to the emphasis of two series of product ions, exhibiting 14 Da spaced m/z ratios. Both series were referred to progressive fragmentations at the aliphatic end of the AHL acyl chains, followed by neutral losses of terminal alkenes (i.e. CH(2)=CH(CH(2))(n)H). In particular, the series located at the higher end of the explored m/z range (>200 Da), observed only for monounsaturated species, enabled the location of the C=C bond between carbons 7 and 8 of the acyl chain.

Coexistence of quorum-quenching and quorum-sensing in tropical marine Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain MW3A

A chemically defined medium called KGm medium was used to isolate from a sample of sea water a bacterial strain, MW3A, capable of using N-3-oxohexanoyl-L: -homoserine lactone as the sole carbon source. MW3A was clustered closely to Pseudomonas aeruginosa by 16S ribosomal DNA sequence analysis. It degraded both N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) with a 3-oxo group substitution and, less preferably, AHLs with unsubstituted groups at C3 position in the acyl side chain, as determined by Rapid Resolution Liquid Chromatography. Its quiP and pvdQ homologue gene sequences showed high similarities to those of known acylases. Spent supernatant of MW3A harvested at 8-h post inoculation was shown to contain long-chain AHLs when assayed with the biosensor Escherichia coli [pSB1075], and specifically N-dodecanoyl-L: -homoserine lactone and N-3-oxotetradecanoyl-L: -homoserine lactone by high resolution mass spectrometry. Hence, we report here a novel marine P. aeruginosa strain MW3A possessing both quorum-quenching and quorum-sensing properties.

Microbial linguistics: perspectives and applications of microbial cell-to-cell communication

Inter-cellular communication via diffusible small molecules is a defining character not only of multicellular forms of life but also of single-celled organisms. A large number of bacterial genes are regulated by the change of chemical milieu mediated by the local population density of its own species or others. The cell density-dependent "autoinducer" molecules regulate the expression of those genes involved in genetic competence, biofilm formation and persistence, virulence, sporulation, bioluminescence, antibiotic production, and many others. Recent innovations in recombinant DNA technology and micro-/nano-fluidics systems render the genetic circuitry responsible for cell-to-cell communication feasible to and malleable via synthetic biological approaches. Here we review the current understanding of the molecular biology of bacterial intercellular communication and the novel experimental protocols and platforms used to investigate this phenomenon. A particular emphasis is given to the genetic regulatory circuits that provide the standard building blocks which constitute the syntax of the biochemical communication network. Thus, this review gives focus to the engineering principles necessary for rewiring bacterial chemo-communication for various applications, ranging from population-level gene expression control to the study of host-pathogen interactions.

Characterization of quorum sensing signals in coral-associated bacteria

Marine environment habitats, such as the coral mucus layer, are abundant in nutrients and rich with diverse populations of microorganisms. Since interactions among microorganisms found in coral mucus can be either mutualistic or competitive, understanding quorum sensing-based acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) language may shed light on the interaction between coral-associated microbial communities in the native host. More than 100 bacterial isolates obtained from different coral species were screened for their ability to produce AHL. When screening the isolated coral bacteria for AHL induction activity using the reporter strains Escherichia coli K802NR-pSB1075 and Agrobacterium tumefaciens KYC55, we found that approximately 30% of the isolates tested positive. Thin layer chromatography separation of supernatant extracts revealed different AHL profiles, with detection of at least one active compound in the supernatant of those bacterial extracts being able to induce AHL activity in the two different bioreporter strains. The active extract of bacterial isolate 3AT 1-10-4 was subjected to further analysis by preparative thin layer chromatography and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. One of the compounds was found to correspond with N-(3-hydroxydecanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone. 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the isolates with positive AHL activity affiliated them with the Vibrio genus. Understanding the ecological role of AHL in the coral environment and its regulatory circuits in the coral holobiont-associated microbial community will further expand our knowledge of such interactions.

Signaling-mediated cross-talk modulates swarming and biofilm formation in a coral pathogen Serratia marcescens

Interactions within microbial communities associated with marine holobionts contribute importantly to the health of these symbiotic organisms formed by invertebrates, dinoflagellates and bacteria. However, mechanisms that control invertebrate-associated microbiota are not yet fully understood. Hydrophobic compounds that were isolated from surfaces of asymptomatic corals inhibited biofilm formation by the white pox pathogen Serratia marcescens PDL100, indicating that signals capable of affecting the associated microbiota are produced in situ. However, neither the origin nor structures of these signals are currently known. A functional survey of bacteria recovered from coral mucus and from cultures of the dinoflagellate Symbiodinium spp. revealed that they could alter swarming and biofilm formation in S. marcescens. As swarming and biofilm formation are inversely regulated, the ability of some native α-proteobacteria to affect both behaviors suggests that the α-proteobacterial signal(s) target a global regulatory switch controlling the behaviors in the pathogen. Isolates of Marinobacter sp. inhibited both biofilm formation and swarming in S. marcescens PDL100, without affecting growth of the coral pathogen, indicative of the production of multiple inhibitors, likely targeting lower level regulatory genes or functions. A multi-species cocktail containing these strains inhibited progression of a disease caused by S. marcescens in a model polyp Aiptasia pallida. An α-proteobacterial isolate 44B9 had a similar effect. Even though ∼4% of native holobiont-associated bacteria produced compounds capable of triggering responses in well-characterized N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) biosensors, there was no strong correlation between the production of AHL-like signals and disruption of biofilms or swarming in S. marcescens.

Characterization of N-acylhomoserine lactone-degrading bacteria associated with the Zingiber officinale (ginger) rhizosphere: co-existence of quorum quenching and quorum sensing in Acinetobacter and Burkholderia

BACKGROUND

Cell-to-cell communication (quorum sensing (QS)) co-ordinates bacterial behaviour at a population level. Consequently the behaviour of a natural multi-species community is likely to depend at least in part on co-existing QS and quorum quenching (QQ) activities. Here we sought to discover novel N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL)-dependent QS and QQ strains by investigating a bacterial community associated with the rhizosphere of ginger (Zingiber officinale) growing in the Malaysian rainforest.

RESULTS

By using a basal growth medium containing N-(3-oxohexanoyl)homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C6-HSL) as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen, the ginger rhizosphere associated bacteria were enriched for strains with AHL-degrading capabilities. Three isolates belonging to the genera Acinetobacter (GG2), Burkholderia (GG4) and Klebsiella (Se14) were identified and selected for further study. Strains GG2 and Se14 exhibited the broadest spectrum of AHL-degrading activities via lactonolysis while GG4 reduced 3-oxo-AHLs to the corresponding 3-hydroxy compounds. In GG2 and GG4, QQ was found to co-exist with AHL-dependent QS and GG2 was shown to inactivate both self-generated and exogenously supplied AHLs. GG2, GG4 and Se14 were each able to attenuate virulence factor production in both human and plant pathogens.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively our data show that ginger rhizosphere bacteria which make and degrade a wide range of AHLs are likely to play a collective role in determining the QS-dependent phenotype of a polymicrobial community.

PA0305 of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a quorum quenching acylhomoserine lactone acylase belonging to the Ntn hydrolase superfamily

The Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 genome has at least two genes, pvdQ and quiP, encoding acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) acylases. Two additional genes, pa1893 and pa0305, have been predicted to encode penicillin acylase proteins, but have not been characterized. Initial studies on a pa0305 transposon insertion mutant suggested that the gene is not related to the AHL growth phenotype of P. aeruginosa. The close similarity (67 %) of pa0305 to HacB, an AHL acylase of Pseudomonas syringae, prompted us to investigate whether the PA0305 protein might also function as an AHL acylase. The pa0305 gene has been cloned and the protein (PA0305) has been overproduced, purified and subjected to functional characterization. Analysis of the purified protein showed that, like β-lactam acylases, PA0305 undergoes post-translational processing resulting in α- and β-subunits, with the catalytic serine as the first amino acid of the β-subunit, strongly suggesting that PA0305 is a member of the N-terminal nucleophile hydrolase superfamily. Using a biosensor assay, PA0305his was shown to degrade AHLs with acyl side chains ranging in length from 6 to 14 carbons. Kinetics studies using N-octanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (C(8)-HSL) and N-(3-oxo-dodecanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C(12)-HSL) as substrates showed that the enzyme has a robust activity towards these two AHLs, with apparent K(cat)/K(m) values of 0.14 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1) towards C(8)-HSL and 7.8 × 10(4) M(-1 )s(-1) towards 3-oxo-C(12)-HSL. Overexpression of the pa0305 gene in P. aeruginosa showed significant reductions in both accumulation of 3-oxo-C(12)-HSL and expression of virulence factors. A mutant P. aeruginosa strain with a deleted pa0305 gene showed a slightly increased capacity to kill Caenorhabditis elegans compared with the P. aeruginosa PAO1 wild-type strain and the PAO1 strain carrying a plasmid overexpressing pa0305. The harmful effects of the Δpa0305 strain on the animals were most visible at 5 days post-exposure and the mortality rate of the animals fed on the Δpa0305 strain was faster than for the animals fed on either the wild-type strain or the strain overexpressing pa0305. In conclusion, the pa0305 gene encodes an efficient acylase with activity towards long-chain homoserine lactones, including 3-oxo-C(12)-HSL, the natural quorum sensing signal molecule in P. aeruginosa, and we propose to name this acylase HacB.

Manipulation of quorum sensing regulation in Pseudomonas fluorescens NCIMB 10586 to increase mupirocin production

Transcription of the 74 kb Pseudomonas fluorescens mupirocin [pseudomonic acid (PA)] biosynthesis cluster depends on quorum sensing-dependent regulation via the LuxI/LuxR homologues MupI/MupR. To facilitate analysis of novel PAs from pathway mutants, we investigated factors that affect mup gene expression. First, the signal produced by MupI was identified as N-(3-oxodecanoyl)homoserine lactone, but exogenous addition of this molecule did not activate mupirocin production prematurely nor did expression of mupI in trans increase metabolite production. Second, we confirmed that mupX, encoding an amidase/hydrolase that can degrade N-acylhomoserine lactones, is also required for efficient expression, consistent with its occurrence in a regulatory module linked to unrelated genes in P. fluorescens. Third, and most significantly, mupR expression in trans to wild type and mutants can increase production of antibiotic and novel intermediates up to 17-fold.

Luminescent reporters and their applications for the characterization of signals and signal-mimics that alter LasR-mediated quorum sensing

In many pathogenic bacteria, quorum sensing (QS) controls expression of genes that are involved in virulence, production and resistance to antibiotics, formation and maintenance of microbial multicellular consortia on biotic and abiotic surfaces of medical and industrial importance. N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHL) are the best characterized quorum sensing signals in Gram-negative bacteria. Interference with AHL-mediated QS, therefore, is considered an attractive strategy for controlling virulence in pathogens. The search for AHL signals and their mimics has been facilitated by the development of sensitive bioassays, in which QS reporters luminesce in response to AHL signals. These bioassays have already led to the identification of dozens of compounds with QS modulating activities. The characterization of the mode of action of QS signals and their mimics requires follow-up biochemical studies. Here, we describe a set of luminescent reporters, which could be used in high, medium or low throughput format, for the discovery and validation of agonists or antagonists of the Las QS system of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These nearly isogenic reporters contain truncations or point mutations in the AHL binding domain of the AHL receptor LasR, as well as mutations in the promoter for the gene encoding LasI AHL synthase. We also developed reporters for documenting the regulation of lasI and lasR promoters. The use of these reporters significantly streamlines identification and characterization of the Las QS signal agonists and antagonists prior to biochemical experiments. To test the usefulness of these reporters, we carried out bioassays with patulin, a known inhibitor of Las QS.