The varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: clinical, CSF, imaging, and virologic features

Acute transverse myelitis complicating breakthrough varicella infection

We report a 10-year-old girl who presented with acute transverse myelitis after breakthrough varicella infection. The diagnosis was based on the development of motor weakness, paraparesis and bladder dysfunction, spinal magnetic resonance imaging findings and detection of anti-varicella zoster virus IgG antibody in the cerebrospinal fluid. This case report highlights that breakthrough varicella can result in serious complications such as acute transverse myelitis.

Neuroepidemiology and the epidemiology of viral infections of the nervous system

The field of neurovirology will undoubtedly experience evolution and change in the years to come. The epidemiology of viral CNS diseases continues to change, and as our understanding of the pathogenesis and pathophysiology associated with viral agents grows, so does our understanding of the behavior of these pathogens among populations. The appearance of viral pathogens in newsettings, new or unrecognized modes of transmission,and the emergence of previously unrecognized pathogens will continue to challenge our laboratory diagnostic and epidemiologic capabilities. However, each lesson that is learned from this evolving epidemiology will hopefully result in improved surveillance, diagnostic,and treatment and prevention capabilities.

Central nervous system complications of varicella-zoster virus

OBJECTIVE

To describe the spectrum of central nervous system complications of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in children admitted to The Hospital for Sick Children between January 1999 and December 2012.

STUDY DESIGN

Children aged 1 month to 18 years (n = 84) admitted with neurologic manifestations associated with a characteristic VZV rash or a confirmatory laboratory test (positive lesion scraping or cerebrospinal fluid polymerase chain reaction) were included in the study. Acute neurologic complications were included if they occurred within 4 weeks of VZV infection. Stroke was considered related to VZV if it occurred within 6 months of VZV infection, the neuroimaging was characteristic, and other causes were excluded.

RESULTS

Clinical syndromes included acute cerebellar ataxia (n = 26), encephalitis (n = 17), isolated seizures (n = 16), stroke (n = 10), meningitis (n = 10), Guillain-Barré syndrome (n = 2), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (n = 2), and Ramsay Hunt syndrome (n = 1). In those with acute complications (nonstroke), neurologic symptoms occurred a median of 5 days after rash onset (range -6 to +16). The time between rash onset and stroke ranged from 2 weeks to 26 weeks (median 16.0 weeks). Three children with encephalitis died. Residual neurologic sequelae at one year occurred in 9 of 39 (23%) of children with follow-up data. Only 4 children were reported to have received the varicella vaccine.

CONCLUSION

Neurologic complications of VZV infection continue to occur despite the availability of an effective vaccine. Neurologic symptom onset can predate the appearance of the VZV exanthem and in rare cases may occur in the absence of an exanthem.

Cerebrovascular events in HIV-infected patients: an analysis of a cohort of 3203 HIV+ patients during the times of cART

PURPOSE/AIM

Cerebrovascular events (CVE) in HIV infected patients have become an increasingly relevant neurological complication. Data about the prevalence and clinical features of CVE in HIV infected patients since the introduction of combined Anti-Retroviral Therapy (cART) are rare.

METHODS

A retrospective study of HIV-infected patients with a CVE was performed from 2002 to 2011. During this time period 3203 HIV-infected patients were admitted to the University hospital of Münster, Germany. All patients had access to regular and long term treatment with cART. The clinical features were analyzed and the prevalence of ischemic stroke (IS), transient ischemic attack (TIA) and intracerebral bleeding (ICB) was calculated.

RESULTS

The total prevalence of all CVE was at 0.6% (95% CI: 0.3, 0.8) (0.4% for IS (95% CI: 0.2, 0.6), 0.2% for TIA (95% CI: 0.0, 0.3) and 0.1% for ICB (95% CI: 0.0, 0.2)) and the crude annual incidence rate at 59 per 100.000 for all events. The median CD4 cell count was 405/μl (25th to 75th percentile: 251-568). The majority of patients had AIDS. The median age was at 49 years (25th to 75th percentile: 40-69). Some events were associated with HIV-associated vasculopathy or viral co-infections. Most patients presented with multiple vascular risk factors.

CONCLUSION

The study confirms that CVE occur in HIV-infected patients with a good immune status and at a young age. HIV infection has to be considered in young stroke patients. The rate of CVE in this study was constant when comparing to the pre-cART era. HIV associated vasculopathy and viral co-infections need to be considered in the diagnostics of stroke.

Clinical application of viral cerebrospinal fluid PCR testing for diagnosis of central nervous system disorders: a retrospective 11-year experience

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the gold standard to detect cerebral viral activity. As positive findings do not prove an impact on the neurological disorder, data interpretation is difficult. To better assess the impact of positive CSF PCR findings in different neurological diseases and to identify coherences facilitating CSF PCR data interpretation, we performed this retrospective analysis of CSF PCR data of 481 pediatric and 2604 adult patients, including herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), and enteroviruses (EV). Nucleic acid of EBV was detected in 1.6% (39/2449), of VZV in 1.3% (34/2624), of HSV in 1.24% (37/2994), of EV in 0.4% (10/2364), of HHV-6 in 0.17% (4/2417), and of CMV in 0.2% (5/2514) of the patients. Newborns and elderly people showed highest infection rates. HSV, VZV, and EV prevailed in typical infectious central nervous system (CNS) diseases; EBV, in further inflammatory neurological diseases; HSV and EBV, in immunocompromised patients; and EBV, HSV, and HHV-6, in further non-inflammatory neurological diseases. Analysis of successive PCR studies revealed delayed viral detection for EBV (6/147) and HSV (1/217), respectively. Rapid viral clearance was typical for HSV, VZV, CMV, and EV infections, although the maximum duration of viral detection was 15days for HSV and 12days for VZV, respectively. This suggests that the detection of HSV, VZV, CMV, and EV strongly indicates symptomatic viral CNS disease. Secondary viral reactivation mostly underlies positive EBV and HHV-6 findings. Their detection does not rule out clinical impact but recommends searching for additional underlying conditions.

Herpes zoster meningoencephalitis complicated with peripheral vascular disease: an uncommon presentation of a common disease

Herpes zoster is reactivation of the varicella zoster virus that has remained dormant in the dorsal root ganglia since an earlier episode of chickenpox. Herpes zoster has variable clinical presentations, but meningo-encephalitis is not frequently encountered. There is growing evidence of both large and small vessel involvement in immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients, in contrast with the previous opinion that immunocompetent patients have vasculopathy in the large vessels while immunosuppressed patients have vasculopathy in the small vessels. We present the case of a patient in whom herpes zoster meningoencephalitis was complicated with multifocal vasculopathy with peripheral vascular disease; this is an unusual co-occurrence.

Unilateral herpes zoster ophthalmicus with bilateral cerebral infarcts in human immunodeficiency virus seropositive patient

Ischemic stroke is a recognized complication of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Arterial involvement is usually seen on the side of the rash. It is thought to be due to vessel inflammation by the virus, which travels from the trigeminal ganglion. Few case reports of bilateral and distant site of zoster lesions with stroke in the brain have been described. These reports suggest possibility of contiguous vascular, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or hematogenous spread of the virus from the ganglion to the cerebral blood vessels. Therapeutically acyclovir, anticoagulation, and steroids have been used in the treatment of the zoster associated with stroke. We describe a case of immunocompromised patient with ipsilateral zoster ophthalmicus with bilateral anterior circulation strokes, who was treated with above measures and made successful recovery. This report also raises/supports possible CSF/vascular/hematogenous spread of the virus from the ganglion to involve cerebral blood vessels leading to the stroke.

Isolated Gait Ataxia as a Sole Manifestation of Right Lateral Medullary Infarct following Ipsilateral Trigeminal Herpes Zoster

BACKGROUND

Cerebral infarct related to varicella-zoster virus (VZV) has been reported in the literature. In addition, lateral medullary infarct (LMI) can be manifested rarely as isolated gait ataxia without other characteristic symptoms.

CASE REPORT

A 70-year-old female was admitted to our hospital because of herpes zoster on the right trigeminal nerve distribution. On the 15th hospital day, she developed sudden vertigo and fine left-beating nystagmus with axial lateropulsion to the right side, without the other usual signs of LMI (Horner syndrome, dysarthria, swallowing difficulty or hemibody sensory change). Brain MRI showed a small infarct in the far dorsolateral portion of the right rostral medulla and pontomedullary junction. Cerebrospinal fluid study showed a positive VZV IgG antibody.

CONCLUSIONS

We reported a case of isolated gait ataxia as the sole manifestation of right LMI following herpes zoster on the right trigeminal distribution. A high index of clinical suspicion for concomitant central nervous system complication is necessary in patients with herpes zoster, although the concomitant neurologic symptom may be mild or less lateralized.

Varicella zoster CNS vascular complications. A report of four cases and literature review

This study explored the neurologic vascular complications of varicella zoster virus (VZV). We describe four patients presenting at our institution with neurologic involvement by VZV. MR and MRA studies of the intracranial arterial circulation in the head were read by board-certified radiologists using standard clinical procedures. On MRI, three patients had acute infarcts and in two instances irregularities and narrowings of vessels were visible. Many of these complications are recognized to be due to a vasculopathy affecting small or large vessels and resulting in cerebral infarctions and rarely hemorrhages. The pattern of cerebral infarction and vascular abnormalities is not specific and resembles those of vasculitis/vasculopathy from other causes. The central nervous system (CNS) vascular complications of VZV should be considered in the patients with simultaneous primary or prior VZV infection whose imaging studies show cerebral infarction and/or vasculitic appearing intracranial arteries.

Update on varicella zoster virus vasculopathy

Primary infection of humans with varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella (chickenpox), after which the virus becomes latent in cranial nerve ganglia, dorsal root ganglia and autonomic ganglia along the entire neuraxis. As VZV-specific cell-mediated immunity declines in elderly and immunocompromised individuals, VZV reactivates from one or more ganglia and typically causes herpes zoster (shingles). Zoster may also be complicated by VZV vasculopathy due to productive virus infection of the cerebral arteries. In recent decades, the clinical spectrum of VZV vasculopathy has expanded to include not only transient ischemic attacks and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, but also multifocal VZV vasculopathy, with temporal artery infection mimicking giant cell arteritis, extracranial vasculopathy, aneurysm with and without subarachnoid hemorrhage, arterial dissection and dolichoectasia, ischemic cranial neuropathies, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, spinal cord infarction and peripheral thrombotic disease.

Neurological complications of varicella zoster virus reactivation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation results in zoster, which may be complicated by postherpetic neuralgia, myelitis, meningoencephalitis, and VZV vasculopathy. This review highlights the clinical features, laboratory abnormalities, imaging changes, and optimal treatment of each of those conditions. Because all of these neurological disorders produced by VZV reactivation can occur in the absence of rash, the virological tests proving that VZV caused disease are discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

After primary infection, VZV becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis. With a decline in VZV-specific cell-mediated immunity, VZV reactivates from ganglia and travels anterograde to the skin to cause zoster, which is often complicated by postherpetic neuralgia. VZV can also travel retrograde to produce meningoencephalitis, myelitis, and stroke. When these complications occur without rash, VZV-induced disease can be diagnosed by detection of VZV DNA or anti-VZV antibody in cerebrospinal fluid and treated with intravenous acyclovir.

SUMMARY

Awareness of the expanding spectrum of neurological complications caused by VZV reactivation with and without rash will improve diagnosis and treatment.

Post-varicella angiopathy: a series of 4 patients with focus on virologic and neuroimaging findings

BACKGROUND

Post-varicella angiopathy is an important cause of childhood stroke and follows a particular pattern. Specific treatment guidelines have not been developed because of a lack of epidemiological, laboratory, and neuroimaging data. Prospective randomized controlled trials evaluating different treatment strategies have not been performed, and expert opinions on diagnostic criteria, prognosis, and treatment are diverging.

METHODS

This case series describes the clinical course, laboratory, and neuroimaging findings of four children with post-varicella angiopathy, who all underwent cerebrospinal fluid assessment and received antiviral, immunosuppressive, and antiplatelet treatment.

RESULTS

Cerebrospinal fluid analysis was positive for varicella-zoster virus markers in three children. At follow-up, three children had a mild hemiparesis and one child had no neurological symptoms. Neuroimaging showed complete vascular remission in three patients and improvement in one.

CONCLUSIONS

Systematic search for virologic markers in cerebrospinal fluid will contribute to the understanding of the pathogenesis of idiopathic childhood stroke and can be considered as a prerequisite for the development of clear diagnostic criteria and relevant treatment strategies for post-varicella angiopathy. The role of antiviral and immunosuppressive medication needs to be clarified.

Infectious causes of stroke

Most infectious pathogens have anecdotal evidence to support a link with stroke, but certain pathogens have more robust associations, in which causation is probable. Few dedicated prospective studies of stroke in the setting of infection have been done. The use of head imaging, a clinical standard of diagnostic care, to confirm stroke and stroke type is not universal. Data for stroke are scarce in locations where infections are probably most common, making it difficult to reach conclusions on how populations differ in terms of risk of infectious stroke. The treatment of infections and stroke, when concomitant, is based on almost no evidence and requires dedicated efforts to understand variations that might exist. We highlight the present knowledge and emphasise the need for stronger evidence to assist in the diagnosis, treatment, and secondary prevention of stroke in patients in whom an infectious cause for stroke is probable.

Hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke secondary to herpes simplex virus type 2 meningitis and vasculopathy

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) meningitis dogmatically is benign and self-limited in the immune competent patient. However, we describe how left untreated HSV-2 meningitis can be complicated by vasculitis and both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. We report a 57-year-old woman with lymphocytic meningitis complicated by ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage in the setting of vasculopathy and HSV-2 DNA detected in CSF successfully treated with acyclovir and corticosteroids. Subsequent angiographic magnetic resonance imaging revealed improvement in the vasculopathy after treatment. This case demonstrates that HSV-2 meningitis may take a less benign course and further provides the first evidence of angiographic improvement in addition to clinical improvement after definitive treatment.

Primary herpes virus infection and ischemic stroke in childhood: a new association?

We describe, to our knowledge, the first case of arterial ischemic stroke after primary herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1) infection in a previously healthy child, without signs of encephalitis. A 10-year-old previously healthy girl was admitted to our hospital with acute left-sided hemiparesis which involved the lower half of her face. Submandibular lymphadenitis and oral vesicular lesions were present. MRI confirmed the suspicion of an acute ischemic stroke. Immunoglobulin M antibodies to HSV1 were detected. Cerebrospinal fluid polymerase chain reaction for herpes virus was negative. She was treated with aspirin (3mg/kg) and intravenous acyclovir (10mg/kg every 8 hours) for 21 days. Immunoglobulin G antibodies to HSV1 appeared 16 days after admission. Twelve months after her hospitalization the patient's examination was normal. Stroke should be considered a possible complication of HSV1 primary infection. Guidelines for the management of acute stroke in children are needed.

[Cerebral infarction and intracranial aneurysm related to the reactivation of varicella zoster virus in a Japanese acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patient]

A 35-years-old right-handed man admitted to our hospital with a worsening of dysarthria, left facial palsy and left hemiparesis for 2 days. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was diagnosed when he was 28 years old. At that time, he also was treated for syphilis. After highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) was introduced at the age of 35 years old, serum level of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was not detected, but the number of CD4+ T cells was still less than 200/μl. He had no risk factors of atherosclerosis including hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia. He had neither coagulation abnormality nor autoimmune disease. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed acute ischemic infarction spreading from the right corona radiate to the right internal capsule without contrast enhancement. Stenosis and occlusion of intracranial arteries were not detected by MR angiography. Although argatroban and edaravone were administered, his neurological deficits were worsened to be difficult to walk independently. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination showed a mild mononuclear pleocytosis (16/μl).　Oligoclonal band was positive. The titer of anti-varicella zoster virus (VZV) IgG antibodies was increased, that indicated VZV reactivation in the central nervous system (CNS), although VZV DNA PCR was not detected. Therefore, acyclovir (750 mg/day for 2 weeks) and valaciclovir (3,000 mg/day for 1 month) were administered in addition to stroke therapy. He recovered to be able to walk independently 2 month after the admission.Angiography uncovered a saccular aneurysm of 3 mm at the end of branch artery of right anterior cerebral artery, Heubner artery, 28 days after the admission. We speculated that VZV vasculopathy caused by VZV reactivation in CNS was involved in the pathomechanism of cerebral infarction rather than HIV vasculopathy in the case.

Chickenpox and stroke in children: case studies and literature review

Postvaricella cerebral arteriopathy (PVCA) presents with acute haemiparesis and/or haemidistonia, caused by ischaemic lesions of internal capsule and/or basal ganglia, related to stenosis of proximal middle and/or anterior cerebral arteries. Anti-aggregant drugs are recommended to prevent thrombus expansion and recurrent stroke, but neurologic outcome is usually good regardless of the therapeutic approach.

CONCLUSION

Chickenpox should be considered in differential diagnosis of ischaemic stroke in healthy children who fit the clinical and radiological typical profile of PVCA.

Clinical features, outcomes, and cerebrospinal fluid findings in adult patients with central nervous system (CNS) infections caused by varicella-zoster virus: comparison with enterovirus CNS infections

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is known to be associated with central nervous system (CNS) infections in adults. However, the clinical characteristics of VZV CNS infections are not well characterized. The aim of this study was to compare the clinical manifestations, outcomes, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) findings in patients with VZV CNS infections with those in patients with enterovirus (EV) CNS infections. This retrospective cohort study was performed at a 2,700-bed tertiary care hospital. Using a clinical microbiology computerized database, all adults with CSF PCR results positive for VZV or EV that were treated between January 1999 and February 2013 were identified. Thirty-eight patients with VZV CNS infection and 68 patients with EV CNS infection were included in the study. Compared with the EV group, the median age in the VZV group was higher (VZV, 35 years vs. EV, 31 years; P = 0.02), and showed a bimodal age distribution with peaks in the third and seventh decade. Encephalitis was more commonly encountered in the VZV group (VZV, 23.7% vs. EV, 4.4%; P = 0.01). The median lymphocyte percentage in the CSF (VZV, 81% vs. EV, 36%; P < 0.001) and the CSF protein level (VZV, 100 mg/dl vs. EV, 46 mg/dl; P < 0.001) were higher in the VZV group. Compared with patients with EV CNS infection, patients with VZV CNS infection developed encephalitis more often and exhibited more intense inflammatory reaction. Nevertheless, both VZV and EV CNS infections were associated with excellent long-term prognosis.

Varicella zoster-associated retinal and central nervous system vasculitis in a patient with multiple sclerosis treated with natalizumab

We report the first case of combined retinal and CNS varicella zoster-associated vasculitis in a 49-year-old patient with multiple sclerosis who had been treated with natalizumab. He presented with a progressive bilateral visual loss. The diagnosis of a vasculitis was based on the fundoscopic examination and MRI findings. We confirmed the varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection of the CNS by PCR and increased intrathecal antibody indices in the cerebrospinal fluid. The patient was stabilized with antiviral treatment, methylprednisolone, plasmapheresis and cycophosphamide. Natalizumab was discontinued. This case illustrates the neuroimmunological and neuroinfectiological consequences of treatments with biologicals that influence the immune system.

Cerebrospinal fluid findings in geriatric patients from 2008 to 2011

BACKGROUND

The chemical composition of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is age-dependent.

METHODS

Routine CSF parameters, the indications for lumbar puncture (LP), and the most frequent complications were retrospectively studied in patients older (n = 167) and younger (n = 36) than 65 years.

RESULTS

In the absence of meningeal inflammation, the mean CSF lactate level of patients older than 65 years was slightly but significantly higher than the mean CSF lactate level of younger patients. The lactate level of patients with otherwise normal CSF findings correlated significantly with the age of the patients. In the absence of meningeal inflammation, the CSF-to-serum albumin ratio (QAlbumin) was significantly higher in older patients than in younger ones. The most frequent indication for LP, suspected infection of the central nervous system (CNS) (n = 110), was confirmed in 12.7% of patients. The only LP complication documented was headache in two patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevations of QAlbumin and CSF lactate levels appear to be nonspecific findings in elderly patients. Suspected infections, the most frequent indication for LP, were confirmed by CSF analysis in more than 10% of patients. The very low complication rate of LP makes it a very valuable tool in the diagnostic routine for older patients with CNS diseases.

Central nervous system–immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome presenting as varicella zoster virus-mediated vasculitis causing stroke

Varicella zoster virus (VZV)-mediated vasculitis is a rare cause of stroke, but should be considered in HIV patients where vasculitis can occur in association with central nervous system – immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (CNS-IRIS). A literature search revealed 7 reports of VZV vasculitis over the years with no unifying management strategy, highlighting the difficulty in managing rare conditions in the absence of clear guidelines. This is the first documented case of VZV-mediated vasculitis presenting as stroke in the United Kingdom. Our patient made a full recovery with multidisciplinary input from HIV, neurology and radiology specialists.

Approach to acute ischemic stroke in childhood

OPINION STATEMENT

Acute ischemic stroke in childhood is a medical emergency. Prompt recognition and intervention is necessary to rescue potentially viable brain tissue, prevent complications, and minimize the risk of recurrent stroke. Conditions that could result in recurrent stroke such as cardiac thrombus or cervical artery dissection need to be identified and treated promptly. Although the care of childhood stroke is based largely on extrapolation from adults, an organized approach to the care of these children is critical to optimize outcome.

Varicella zoster virus central nervous system immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome presenting in a child

A HIV-positive child presented with acute onset of right hemiplegia, facial palsy and dysphasia 4 weeks after commencing highly active antiretroviral therapy. Magnetic resonance imaging confirmed a left-sided cerebral infarct. Cerebrospinal fluid polymerase chain reaction was positive for varicella zoster virus. This is the first reported pediatric case of varicella zoster virus-related immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome involving the central nervous system.

Viral encephalitis in the ICU

Viral encephalitis causes an altered level of consciousness, which may be associated with fever, seizures, focal deficits, CSF pleocytosis, and abnormal neuroimaging. Potential pathogens include HSV, VZV, enterovirus, and in some regions, arboviruses. Autoimmune (eg, anti-NMDA receptor) and paraneoplastic encephalitis are responsible for some cases where no pathogen is identified. Indications for ICU admission include coma, status epilepticus and respiratory failure. Timely initiation of anti-viral therapy is crucial while relevant molecular and serological test results are being performed. Supportive care should be directed at the prevention and treatment of cerebral edema and other physiological derangements which may contribute to secondary neurological injury.

Virus-induced exacerbations in asthma and COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic airway inflammation and/or airflow limitation due to pulmonary emphysema. Chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, and bronchial asthma may all be associated with airflow limitation; therefore, exacerbation of asthma may be associated with the pathophysiology of COPD. Furthermore, recent studies have suggested that the exacerbation of asthma, namely virus-induced asthma, may be associated with a wide variety of respiratory viruses. COPD and asthma have different underlying pathophysiological processes and thus require individual therapies. Exacerbation of both COPD and asthma, which are basically defined and diagnosed by clinical symptoms, is associated with a rapid decline in lung function and increased mortality. Similar pathogens, including human rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, and coronavirus, are also frequently detected during exacerbation of asthma and/or COPD. Immune response to respiratory viral infections, which may be related to the severity of exacerbation in each disease, varies in patients with both COPD and asthma. In this regard, it is crucial to recognize and understand both the similarities and differences of clinical features in patients with COPD and/or asthma associated with respiratory viral infections, especially in the exacerbative stage. In relation to definition, epidemiology, and pathophysiology, this review aims to summarize current knowledge concerning exacerbation of both COPD and asthma by focusing on the clinical significance of associated respiratory virus infections.

Virus-induced exacerbations in asthma and COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic airway inflammation and/or airflow limitation due to pulmonary emphysema. Chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, and bronchial asthma may all be associated with airflow limitation; therefore, exacerbation of asthma may be associated with the pathophysiology of COPD. Furthermore, recent studies have suggested that the exacerbation of asthma, namely virus-induced asthma, may be associated with a wide variety of respiratory viruses. COPD and asthma have different underlying pathophysiological processes and thus require individual therapies. Exacerbation of both COPD and asthma, which are basically defined and diagnosed by clinical symptoms, is associated with a rapid decline in lung function and increased mortality. Similar pathogens, including human rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, and coronavirus, are also frequently detected during exacerbation of asthma and/or COPD. Immune response to respiratory viral infections, which may be related to the severity of exacerbation in each disease, varies in patients with both COPD and asthma. In this regard, it is crucial to recognize and understand both the similarities and differences of clinical features in patients with COPD and/or asthma associated with respiratory viral infections, especially in the exacerbative stage. In relation to definition, epidemiology, and pathophysiology, this review aims to summarize current knowledge concerning exacerbation of both COPD and asthma by focusing on the clinical significance of associated respiratory virus infections.

The variegate neurological manifestations of varicella zoster virus infection

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is an exclusively human neurotropic alphaherpesvirus. Primary infection causes varicella (chickenpox), after which the virus becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis. With advancing age or immunosuppression, cell-mediated immunity to VZV declines, and the virus reactivates to cause zoster (shingles), dermatomal distribution, pain, and rash. Zoster is often followed by chronic pain (postherpetic neuralgia), cranial nerve palsies, zoster paresis, vasculopathy, meningoencephalitis, and multiple ocular disorders. This review covers clinical, laboratory, and pathological features of neurological complications of VZV reactivation, including diagnostic testing to verify active VZV infection in the nervous system. Additional perspectives are provided by discussions of VZV latency, animal models to study varicella pathogenesis and immunity, and of the value of vaccination of elderly individuals to boost cell-mediated immunity to VZV and prevent VZV reactivation.

Unusual trigeminal autonomic pain heralding hemichorea due to zoster sine Herpete vasculopathy

BACKGROUND

Varicella zoster virus primary infection is responsible for chickenpox, whereas secondary infection or reactivation can lead to a variety of clinical scenarios. If latent infection is established in trigeminal ganglion, the reactivation can determine viral migration to cerebral arteries, which causes a cerebral vasculopathy and subsequently an ischemic stroke.

PATIENTS

Here we report on a child experiencing recurrent episodes of headache mimicking a trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia, in the absence of any skin rash, which were followed by the occurrence of an ipsilateral hemiparesis associated with a choreic movement disorder a month later.

RESULTS

Magnetic resonance angiography showed evidence of a right-sided infarction of basal ganglia and anterior limb of the internal capsule, corresponding to the vascular territory of the recurrent artery of Heubner, as a consequence of a focal varicella zoster virus arteriopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that the recognition of this prodromal manifestation, which can be interpreted as a zoster sine herpete, could provide clinicians an extremely useful time window to start promptly with a prophylactic treatment.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) in an HIV-1 infected patient with disseminated varicella zoster virus: a case report

Background

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is an uncommon pathology characterized by the acute onset of headache, vomiting, altered consciousness, seizures and focal neurological deficits. It was initially described in the setting of hypertension, uremia and immunosuppression. In the last decade there have been emerging reports of PRES in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infection in the presence of hypertension, dialysis, hypercalcaemia and two opportunistic infections: blastomycosis and tuberculosis (TB).

Case presentation

Here we present the case of a 54 year old male being treated for disseminated varicella zoster virus (VZV) and vasculopathy in the setting of HIV infection who acutely deteriorated to the point of requiring intubation. His clinicoradiological diagnosis was of PRES and he subsequently improved within 72 h with supportive management. Serial neuroimaging correlated with the clinical findings. The pathogenesis of PRES is poorly understood but is thought to stem from vasogenic oedema either as a result of loss of endothelial integrity and transudate of fluid across the blood–brain barrier, or secondary to vasospasm resulting in tissue oedema in the absence of infarction. How HIV infection impacts on this model is unclear. It is possible the HIV infection causes endothelial dysfunction and disruption of the blood–brain barrier that may be further exacerbated by infections in the central nervous system.

Conclusion

The phenomenon of PRES in advanced HIV is an important clinical entity for both physicians and critical care doctors to recognize firstly given its potential mortality but also because of its favourable prognosis and reversibility with supportive care and treatment of underlying causes.

Varicella zoster virus vasculopathy: clinical features and pathogenesis

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) vasculopathy is caused by productive virus infection of cerebral arteries, leading to inflammation, pathological vascular remodeling, and ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke. VZV vasculopathy occurs in immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals and involves both large and small vessels. MRI abnormalities include more deep-seated than superficial lesions, particularly at gray-white matter junctions, and lesions may enhance. Diagnosis is challenging, since stroke can occur months after zoster rash and in the absence of rash or CSF pleocytosis. The best virological test for diagnosis is detection of anti-VZV IgG antibody in the CSF. Pathological studies of VZV-infected arteries from patients with VZV vasculopathy reveal that the arterial adventitia is the initial site of infection, after which virus spreads transmuraly towards the lumen. Histological and immunohistochemical studies of VZV-infected arteries show a thickened intima, disrupted internal elastic lamina, and loss of smooth muscle cells, that likely contribute to weakening of the vessel wall and occlusion. Early in disease, VZV-infected arteries contain CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, macrophages, and rare B cells, in addition to abundant neutrophils in early disease. Importantly, perivascular inflammatory cells underlie the areas of thickened intima, raising the possibility that soluble factors secreted by these cells contribute to arterial remodeling. This review discusses the clinical features of VZV vasculopathy and potential mechanisms of VZV-induced cerebrovascular remodeling and stroke.

Complications of varicella zoster virus reactivation

OPINION STATEMENT

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is an exclusively human neurotropic alphaherpesvirus. Primary infection causes varicella (chickenpox), after which virus becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis. With advancing age or immunosuppression, cell-mediated immunity to VZV declines and virus reactivates to cause zoster (shingles), which can occur anywhere on the body. Skin lesions resolve within 1-2 weeks, while complete cessation of pain usually takes 4-6 weeks. Zoster can be followed by chronic pain (postherpetic neuralgia), cranial nerve palsies, zoster paresis, meningoencephalitis, cerebellitis, myelopathy, multiple ocular disorders and vasculopathy that can mimic giant cell arteritis. All of the neurological and ocular disorders listed above may also develop without rash. Diagnosis of VZV-induced neurological disease may require examination of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), serum and/ or ocular fluids. In the absence of rash in a patient with neurological disease potentially due to VZV, CSF should be examined for VZV DNA by PCR and for anti-VZV IgG and IgM. Detection of VZV IgG antibody in CSF is superior to detection of VZV DNA in CSF to diagnose vasculopathy, recurrent myelopathy, and brainstem encephalitis. Oral antiviral drugs speed healing of rash and shorten acute pain. Immunocompromised patients require intravenous acyclovir. First-line treatments for post-herpetic neuralgia include tricyclic antidepressants, gabapentin, pregabalin, and topical lidocaine patches. VZV vasculopathy, meningoencephalitis, and myelitis are all treated with intravenous acyclovir.

The short- and long-term risk of stroke after herpes zoster - a nationwide population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is known to cause VZV vasculopathy, which may be associated with stroke. A recent study found an increased risk of stroke within one year of herpes zoster. We aimed to investigate the short and long-term effects of herpes zoster on the risk of stroke.

METHODS

Using Danish national registers, we constructed a cohort consisting of all Danish adults ≥18 years old between 1995 and 2008 (n = 4.6 million; person-years of follow-up = 52.9 million). Individual-level information on prescriptions for herpes zoster antiviral treatment and diagnoses of stroke was obtained from national registers. We compared the risk of stroke in persons who had received the specific dosage of acyclovir for herpes zoster with persons who had never received antiviral treatment by Poisson regression.

RESULTS

During follow-up, 2.5% received treatment for herpes zoster and 5.0% were diagnosed with stroke. Individuals who had received medication had a 127% (95% CI 83-182%) increased risk the first two weeks, 17% (CI 9-24%) between two weeks and one year, and 5% (2-9%) after the first year. The increased risk was greatest in the youngest age group (<40). To control for healthcare-seeking behaviour, we conducted parallel analyses investigating the risk of selected fractures after herpes zoster and found no similar increased risks.

CONCLUSIONS

This large nationwide cohort study found an increased risk of stroke after treatment for herpes zoster. Although the short-term risk was particularly high, we cannot rule out the possibility of a small but important long-term risk.

[Current management of post-varicella stroke in children: a literature review]

Among infectious factors, varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a leading cause of central nervous system vasculopathy and stroke in childhood. Not only have viral markers been detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of affected patients, but also direct evidence of viral particles in the wall of cerebral arteries has been demonstrated in rare pathological specimens. This certainly reflects a localized infectious process likely associated with variable indirect inflammatory responses. Yet the usefulness in this setting of a lumbar puncture as well as of subsequent targeted antiviral and/or anti-inflammatory therapies is uncertain. Indeed, in the majority of cases, the so-called post-varicella angiopathy has a monophasic evolution with spontaneous resolution or stabilization, explaining diverging diagnostic and treatment approaches. In this paper, we have addressed this problematic area by reviewing 26 published cases from the year 2000 and three unpublished cases. Post-varicella stroke is typically associated with angiopathy most often involving the initial portion of the middle cerebral artery, causing a basal ganglia stroke. It tends to occur in young immunocompetent children. Thrombophilia work-up is in general negative. Lumbar puncture was performed in 17 out of 29 cases. Viral markers were examined in 14 cases, but were positive in only eight cases. Antiviral therapy was administrated in 11 children. In this small retrospective study, the treated children's vasculopathy did not progress more favorably nor was there a better outcome compared with untreated subjects.

CNS-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in the setting of HIV infection, part 2: discussion of neuro-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome with and without other pathogens

SUMMARY

While the previous review of CNS-IRIS in the HIV-infected patient on highly active antiretroviral therapy (Part 1) dealt with an overview of the biology, pathology, and neurologic presentation of this condition and a discussion of the atypical imaging findings in PML-IRIS and cryptococcal meningitis-IRIS due to the robust inflammatory response, the current review (Part 2) discusses the imaging findings in other commonly encountered organisms seen in association with CNS-IRIS, namely, VZV, CMV, HIV, Candida organisms, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Toxoplasma gondii. Also described is the imaging appearance of CNS-IRIS when not associated with a particular organism. Recognition of these imaging findings will give credence to the diagnosis of CNS-IRIS and will allow the clinician to institute changes in medical management, if necessary, so that immune reconstitution and improved patient outcome can occur with time.

Herpes zoster encephalitis presenting as multiple cerebral hemorrhages - a rare presentation: a case report

Introduction

An infection by herpes zoster virus is a common and important cause of encephalitis. Herpes zoster virus encephalitis if not treated promptly can result in significant morbidity and mortality. The diagnosis of herpes zoster virus encephalitis is based on clinical history, examination, neuroradiological imaging (magnetic resonance imaging and/or computed tomography scan), cerebrospinal fluid analysis and identification of the pathogen in cerebrospinal fluid by polymerase chain reaction amplification and/or anti-herpes zoster virus immunoglobulin G antibody in cerebrospinal fluid. Although ischemic intracerebral infarcts in patients with herpes zoster virus encephalitis or vasculopathy are reported in the literature, multiple intracerebral hemorrhages as a complication of herpes zoster virus encephalitis in an immunocompetent individual are extremely rare.

Case presentation

A 40-year-old Indian man presented with an acute history of four episodes of seizures, fever, headache, drowsiness, focal neurological deficits and vesicular eruptions over the abdomen in a typical dermatomal distribution. His head computed tomography scan revealed multiple cerebral hemorrhages. Investigations (positive ratio between the cerebrospinal fluid/serum quotients for anti-herpes zoster virus immunoglobulin G and total immunoglobulin G antibodies) established its infective origin due to herpes zoster virus. He developed bilateral pneumonia during the hospital course. He had an excellent recovery following a 2 weeks’ course of intravenous acyclovir.

Conclusion

Herpes zoster virus encephalitis or vasculopathy is a rare cause of multiple intracerebral hemorrhages and must be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients presenting with an acute history of fever, altered consciousness, and focal neurologic deficits with history of a typical herpetic rash. Its prompt recognition and treatment could alter the course of illness.

Unilateral movement disorder as a presenting sign of paediatric post-varicella angiopathy

Diagnosing ischaemic stroke in children is often difficult. Post-varicella angiopathy (PVA) is a well-recognised and frequent cause of childhood ischaemic stroke, particularly affecting the basal ganglia. When a previously healthy child presents with unilateral abnormal involuntary movements, cerebral infarction should be included in the differential diagnosis and PVA should be considered, even when there is no recent history of rash and cerebrospinal fluid is normal. Medical history and intracranial vascular imaging are important for early diagnosis and treatment.

Varicella-zoster meningoencephaloradiculoneuropathy in an immunocompetent young woman

The clinical manifestations of varicella-zoster virus infections can be divided into primary infection with chickenpox and reactivated infection with dermatomal shingles, disseminated herpes zoster, zoster sine herpete and varicella-zoster virus encephalitis, meningitis and vasculopathy. We present a case of zoster sine herpete leading to meningitis with cranial and peripheral nerve palsies. A 17-year-old woman was admitted to hospital with intermittent fever, drowsiness, slowness and subsequent frontal headache and horizontal diplopia. Cerebrospinal fluid examination revealed lymphocytic pleocytosis and PCR amplified varicella-zoster virus DNA. Laboratory and clinical findings were suggestive of meningoencephaloradiculoneuropathy, stemming from varicella-zoster virus and affecting cranial and peripheral nerves. Only 5% of patients with zoster develop cranial and peripheral nerve palsies. Diagnosis is imperative in order to initiate prompt antiviral therapy so as to minimize morbidity and the risk of death.

The challenging patient with varicella-zoster virus disease

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) reactivation from latently infected ganglia causes multiple neurologic diseases. The most common is herpes zoster, which is frequently complicated by postherpetic neuralgia, meningoencephalitis, and vasculopathy, including VZV temporal arteritis, myelopathy, and retinal necrosis. All of these disorders can develop without rash. Importantly, VZV vasculopathy is emerging as a significant cause of TIAs and stroke. In particular, a subset of patients who present with symptoms and signs of giant cell arteritis (GCA), but whose temporal artery biopsies are GCA-negative, have multifocal VZV vasculopathy with temporal artery infection. Herein we focus on the specific diagnostic and therapeutic challenges that clinical neurologists encounter in diseases caused by VZV, discuss guidelines for zoster vaccine, and highlight molecular features of VZV latency with a focus on preventing the serious neurologic and ocular complications of VZV reactivation.

Vessel wall enhancement in herpes simplex virus central nervous system vasculitis

Infection is a well-known cause of cerebral vasculopathy and vasculitis. We report a 36-year-old woman with cerebral vasculitis and ischemic stroke secondary to herpes simplex virus (HSV). MRI studies revealed a pontine stroke with basilar artery stenosis and vessel wall gadolinium enhancement. This case demonstrates the ability of HSV to cause a focal brainstem vasculitis and the utility of enhanced MRI in the diagnosis of stroke related to HSV central nervous system vasculitis.

Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers in patients with varicella-zoster virus CNS infections

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is one of our most common viruses causing central nervous system (CNS) infection with sometimes severe neurological complications. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAp), light subunit of neurofilament protein (NFL) and S-100β protein are cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers that have been used to estimate the severity of brain damage and outcome in various CNS diseases. So far, these biomarkers have not been utilised to investigate glial pathology and neuronal damage in patients with VZV CNS infections. In this prospective study, we measured CSF GFAp, NFL and S-100β as markers of brain damage in 24 patients with acute neurological manifestations and VZV DNA detected in CSF by PCR and compared with a control group (n = 14). Concentrations of CSF NFL and GFAp were increased in patients with VZV CNS infection compared with controls (p = 0.002 and p = 0.03) while levels of S-100β were reduced. In patients with VZV encephalitis the elevations of CSF NFL and GFAp were more pronounced compared with patients with other VZV CNS syndromes. No correlations between the levels of biomarkers and viral load, neurological sequels or clinical outcome were found in this limited number of patients. These results indicate that VZV induces neuronal damage and astrogliosis with more severe brain damage in patients with VZV encephalitis than in patients with other neurological complications caused by this virus.