Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): a framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness

Online Mindfulness Training Increases Well-Being, Trait Emotional Intelligence, and Workplace Competency Ratings: A Randomized Waitlist-Controlled Trial

A randomized waitlist-controlled trial was conducted to assess the effectiveness of an online 8-week mindfulness-based training program in a sample of adults employed fulltime at a Fortune 100 company in the United States. Baseline measures were collected in both intervention and control groups. Following training, the intervention group (N = 37) showed statistically significant increases in resilience and positive mood, and significant decreases in stress and negative mood. There were no reported improvements in the wait-list control group (N = 65). Trait mindfulness and emotional intelligence (EI) were also assessed. Following the intervention mindfulness intervention participants reported increases in trait mindfulness and increases on all trait EI facets with the exception of empathy. The control group did not report any positive changes in these variables, and reported reductions in resilience and increases in negative mood. Finally, both self and colleague ratings of workplace competencies were collected in the intervention group only and provided preliminary evidence that mindfulness training enhanced performance on key leadership competencies including competencies related to decisiveness and creativity. The present study demonstrates the effectiveness of an online-based mindfulness training program for enhancing well-being, self-perceptions of emotional intelligence, and workplace performance.

Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Self-Transcendent States: Perceived Body Boundaries and Spatial Frames of Reference

Objectives

Mindfulness training is believed to encourage self-transcendent states, but little research has examined this hypothesis. This study examined the effects of mindfulness training on two phenomenological features of self-transcendence: 1) perceived body boundary dissolution, and 2) more allocentric spatial frames of reference.

Methods

A sample of healthy, young adults (n=45) were randomized to five sessions of mindfulness training or an active listening control condition.

Results

Results indicated mindfulness training decreased perceived body boundaries (F _4,172=6.010, p<.001, η ²=.12) and encouraged more allocentric frames of reference (F _4,168=2.586, p=.039, η ²=.06). The expected inverse relationship was observed between perceived body boundaries and allocentric frames of reference ((β=-.58, p=.001)), and path analysis revealed the effect of mindfulness training on allocentric frames of reference was mediated by decreased perceived body boundaries (β=.24, se=.17, CI: 0.11 to 0.78).

Conclusions

Taken together, study results suggest that mindfulness training alters practitioners' experience of self, relaxing the boundaries of the self and extending the spatial frame of reference further beyond the physical body. Future studies are needed to explore the psychophysiological changes that co-occur with phenomenological reports of self-transcendence and the behavioral consequences following self-transcendent experiences.

Reductions in perceived stress following Transcendental Meditation practice are associated with increased brain regional connectivity at rest

Transcendental Meditation (TM) is defined as a mental process of transcending using a silent mantra. Previous work showed that relatively brief period of TM practice leads to decreases in stress and anxiety. However, whether these changes are subserved by specific morpho-functional brain modifications (as observed in other meditation techniques) is still unclear. Using a longitudinal design, we combined psychometric questionnaires, structural and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (RS-fMRI) to investigate the potential brain modifications underlying the psychological effects of TM. The final sample included 19 naïve subjects instructed to complete two daily 20-min TM sessions, and 15 volunteers in the control group. Both groups were evaluated at recruitment (T0) and after 3 months (T1). At T1, only meditators showed a decrease in perceived anxiety and stress (t₍₁₈₎ = 2.53, p = 0.02), which correlated negatively with T1-T0 changes in functional connectivity among posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), precuneus and left superior parietal lobule. Additionally, TM practice was associated with increased connectivity between PCC and right insula, likely reflecting changes in interoceptive awareness. No structural changes were observed in meditators or control subjects. These preliminary findings indicate that beneficial effects of TM may be mediated by functional brain changes that take place after a short practice period of 3 months.

Mindfulness-oriented recovery enhancement reduces opioid misuse risk via analgesic and positive psychological mechanisms: A randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

Despite the heightened urgency of the current prescription opioid crisis, few psychotherapies have been evaluated for chronic pain patients receiving long-term opioid analgesics. Current psychological pain treatments focus primarily on ameliorating negative affective processes, yet basic science suggests that risk for opioid misuse is linked with a dearth of positive affect. Interventions that modulate positive psychological processes may produce therapeutic benefits among patients with opioid-treated chronic pain. The aim of this study was to conduct a theory-driven mechanistic analysis of proximal outcome data from a Stage 2 randomized controlled trial of Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement (MORE), an integrative intervention designed to promote positive psychological health.

METHOD

Patients with opioid-treated chronic pain (N = 95; age = 56.8 ± 11.7; 66% female) were randomized to 8 weeks of therapist-led MORE or support group (SG) interventions. A latent positive psychological health variable comprised of positive affect, meaning in life, and self-transcendence measures was examined as a mediator of the effect of MORE on changes in pain severity at posttreatment and opioid misuse risk by 3-month follow-up.

RESULTS

Participants in MORE reported significantly greater reductions in pain severity by posttreatment (p = .03) and opioid misuse risk by 3-month follow-up (p = .03) and significantly greater increases in positive psychological health (p < .001) than SG participants. Increases in positive psychological health mediated the effect of MORE on pain severity by posttreatment (p = .048), which in turn predicted decreases in opioid misuse risk by follow-up (p = .02).

CONCLUSIONS

Targeting positive psychological mechanisms via MORE and other psychological interventions may reduce opioid misuse risk among chronic pain patients receiving long-term opioid therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Brief mindfulness, mental health, and cognitive processes: A randomized controlled trial

The present study evaluated the impact of a brief mindfulness training program on emotional regulation, cognitive rumination, psychological well-being, and depressive symptoms. This is an experimental study, through a randomized controlled trial. A total of 103 people enrolled on a voluntary basis, of whom 51 were randomly selected to participate in the experimental group and 52 in the control group without intervention (on the waiting list). It is established that a brief, four-session mindfulness training program significantly increases psychological well-being and significantly reduces the symptoms associated with depression; there was a decrease in emotional suppression and in intrusive and deliberate rumination, and an increase in cognitive reappraisal. Implications of this brief mindfulness program on the symptoms associated with depression, psychological well-being, emotional regulation, and cognitive rumination are analyzed, as are the scope and limitations of the study.

The neural chronometry of threat-related attentional bias: Event-related potential (ERP) evidence for early and late stages of selective attentional processing

Rapid and accurate detection of threat is adaptive. Yet, threat-related attentional biases, including hypervigilance, avoidance, and attentional disengagement delays, may contribute to the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders. Behavioral measures of attentional bias generally indicate that threat demands more attentional resources; however, indices exploring differential allocation of attention using reaction time fail to clarify the time course by which attention is deployed under threatening circumstances in healthy and anxious populations. In this review, we conduct an interpretive synthesis of 28 attentional bias studies focusing on event-related potentials (ERPs) as a primary outcome to inform an ERP model of the neural chronometry of attentional bias in healthy and anxious populations. The model posits that both healthy and anxious populations display modulations of early ERP components, including the P1, N170, P2, and N2pc, in response to threatening and emotional stimuli, suggesting that both typical and abnormal patterns of attentional bias are characterized by enhanced allocation of attention to threat and emotion at earlier stages of processing. Compared to anxious populations, healthy populations more clearly demonstrate modulations of later components, such as the P3, indexing conscious and evaluative processing of threat and emotion and disengagement difficulties at later stages of processing. Findings from the interpretive synthesis, existing bias models, and extant neural literature on attentional systems are then integrated to inform a conceptual model of the processes and substrates underlying threat appraisal and resource allocation in healthy and anxious populations. To conclude, we discuss therapeutic interventions for attentional bias and future directions.

Mindfulness-Based Blood Pressure Reduction (MB-BP): Stage 1 single-arm clinical trial

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Impacts of mindfulness-based programs on blood pressure remain equivocal, possibly because the programs are not adapted to engage with determinants of hypertension, or due to floor effects. Primary objectives were to create a customized Mindfulness-Based Blood Pressure Reduction (MB-BP) program, and to evaluate acceptability, feasibility, and effects on hypothesized proximal self-regulation mechanisms. Secondary outcomes included modifiable determinants of blood pressure (BP), and clinic-assessed systolic blood pressure (SBP).

METHODS

This was a Stage 1 single-arm trial with one year follow-up. Focus groups and in-depth interviews were performed to evaluate acceptability and feasibility. Self-regulation outcomes, and determinants of BP, were assessed using validated questionnaires or objective assessments. The MB-BP curriculum was adapted from Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction to direct participants' mindfulness skills towards modifiable determinants of blood pressure.

RESULTS

Acceptability and feasibility findings showed that of 53 eligible participants, 48 enrolled (91%). Of these, 43 (90%) attended at least 7 of the 10 MB-BP classes; 43 were followed to one year (90%). Focus groups (n = 19) and semi-structured interviews (n = 10) showed all participants viewed the delivery modality favorably, and identified logistic considerations concerning program access as barriers. A priori selected primary self-regulation outcomes showed improvements at one-year follow-up vs. baseline, including attention control (Sustained Attention to Response Task correct no-go score, p<0.001), emotion regulation (Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Score, p = 0.02), and self-awareness (Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness, p<0.001). Several determinants of hypertension were improved in participants not adhering to American Heart Association guidelines at baseline, including physical activity (p = 0.02), Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension-consistent diet (p<0.001), and alcohol consumption (p<0.001). Findings demonstrated mean 6.1 mmHg reduction in SBP (p = 0.008) at one year follow-up; effects were most pronounced in Stage 2 uncontrolled hypertensives (SBP≥140 mmHg), showing 15.1 mmHg reduction (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

MB-BP has good acceptability and feasibility, and may engage with self-regulation and behavioral determinants of hypertension.

Enhancing Attention by Synchronizing Respiration and Fingertip Pressure: A Pilot Study Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Sustained attention is a fundamental ability ensuring effective cognitive processing and can be enhanced by meditation practice. However, keeping a focused meditative state is challenging for novices because involuntary mind-wandering frequently occurs during their practice. Inspired by the potential of force-control tasks in invoking internal somatic attention, we proposed a haptics-assisted meditation (HAM) to help reduce mind-wandering and enhance attention. During HAM, participants were instructed to maintain awareness on the respiration and meanwhile adjust bimanual fingertip pressures to keep synchronized with the respiration. This paradigm required somatosensory attention as a physiological foundation, aiming to help novices meditate starting with the body and gradually gain essential meditation skills. A cross-sectional study on 12 novices indicated that the participants reported less mind-wandering during HAM compared with the classic breath-counting meditation (BCM). In a further longitudinal study, the experimental group with 10 novices showed significantly improved performance in several attentional tests after 5 days' practice of HAM. They tended to show more significant improvements in a few tests than did the control group performing the 5-day BCM practice. To investigate the brain activities related to HAM, we applied functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to record cerebral hemodynamic responses from the prefrontal and sensorimotor cortices when performing HAM, and we assessed the changes in cerebral activation and functional connectivity (FC) after the 5-day HAM practice. The prefrontal and sensorimotor regions demonstrated a uniform activation when performing HAM, and there was a significant increase in the right prefrontal activation after the practice. We also observed significant changes in the FC between the brain regions related to the attention networks. These behavioral and neural findings together provided preliminary evidence for the effectiveness of HAM on attention enhancement in the early stage of meditation learning.

Characterization and prediction of acute and sustained response to psychedelic psilocybin in a mindfulness group retreat

Meditation and psychedelics have played key roles in humankind's search for self-transcendence and personal change. However, neither their possible synergistic effects, nor related state and trait predictors have been experimentally studied. To elucidate these issues, we administered double-blind the model psychedelic drug psilocybin (315 μg/kg PO) or placebo to meditators (n = 39) during a 5-day mindfulness group retreat. Psilocybin increased meditation depth and incidence of positively experienced self-dissolution along the perception-hallucination continuum, without concomitant anxiety. Openness, optimism, and emotional reappraisal were predictors of the acute response. Compared with placebo, psilocybin enhanced post-intervention mindfulness and produced larger positive changes in psychosocial functioning at a 4-month follow-up, which were corroborated by external ratings, and associated with magnitude of acute self-dissolution experience. Meditation seems to enhance psilocybin's positive effects while counteracting possible dysphoric responses. These findings highlight the interactions between non-pharmacological and pharmacological factors, and the role of emotion/attention regulation in shaping the experiential quality of psychedelic states, as well as the experience of selflessness as a modulator of behavior and attitudes. A better comprehension of mechanisms underlying most beneficial psychedelic experiences may guide therapeutic interventions across numerous mental conditions in the form of psychedelic-assisted applications.

PROMISE: A Model of Insight and Equanimity as the Key Effects of Mindfulness Meditation

In a comprehensive meta-analysis on the effects of mindfulness meditation, Eberth and Sedlmeier (2012) identified a multitude of positive effects that covered a wide range of psychological variables, such as heightened mindfulness as measured through contemporary mindfulness scales, reduced negative emotions, increased positive emotions, changes in self-concept, enhanced attention, perception, and wellbeing, improved interpersonal abilities, and a reduction of negative personality traits. The present research aimed at developing and testing a comprehensive model explaining the wide range of mindfulness meditation effects and their temporal and causal relationships. In Study 1, interviews with meditators at different levels of experience were analyzed using a grounded theory procedure. The resulting model was triangulated and refined by concepts from both Western research and ancient Buddhist scriptures. The model developed highlights equanimity (reduction in emotional reactivity) and insight (alteration of cognitions) as the two key effects of mindfulness meditation that eventually lead to increased wellbeing. The model was pilot-tested with a large sample of meditators and non-meditators in Study 2. Data showed an acceptable fit with the model and indicated that meditators and non-meditators score significantly differently on the model's core categories.

Exploring the Association Between Health Literacy and Psychological Well-Being Among Industry Managers in Germany

OBJECTIVE

Industry managers are typically exposed to high work demands but have received limited attention by research, particularly concerning the issue of health literacy and how this relates to their psychological well-being. The aim of this study was to explore the association between health literacy and psychological well-being among managers in Germany.

METHODS

An online survey of a sample of 126 commercial industry managers was conducted. Effects of health literacy on psychological well-being (WHO-5 index) were investigated using path analysis.

RESULTS

The findings show a quarter of managers were classified as having poor well-being. Health literacy, namely the facets self-regulation (β = 0.40, P < 0.001), self-perception (β = 0.26, P < 0.001), self-control (β = 0.25, P < 0.01), and proactive approach to health (β = 0.09, P < 0.05), were positively associated with psychological well-being.

CONCLUSION

The study indicates that higher health literacy is associated with decreased risk of poor well-being.

What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System

Meditation is an umbrella term, which subsumes a huge number of diverse practices. It is still unclear how these practices can be classified in a reasonable way. Earlier proposals have struggled to do justice to the diversity of meditation techniques. To help in solving this issue, we used a novel bottom-up procedure to develop a comprehensive classification system for meditation techniques. In previous studies, we reduced 309 initially identified techniques to the 20 most popular ones. In the present study, 100 experienced meditators were asked to rate the similarity of the selected 20 techniques. Using multidimensional scaling, we found two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified: activation and amount of body orientation. These dimensions emphasize the role of embodied cognition in meditation. Within these two dimensions, seven main clusters emerged: mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement. We conclude there is no "meditation" as such, but there are rather different groups of techniques that might exert diverse effects. These groups call into question the common division into "focused attention" and "open-monitoring" practices. We propose a new embodied classification system and encourage researchers to evaluate this classification system through comparative studies.

A Brief Review of the EEG Literature on Mindfulness and Fear Extinction and its Potential Implications for Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms (PTSS)

Neuroimaging studies in the area of mindfulness research have provided preliminary support for the idea of fear extinction as a plausible underlying mechanism through which mindfulness exerts its positive benefits. Whilst brain regions identified in the fear extinction network are typically found at a subcortical level, studies have also demonstrated the feasibility of cortical measures of the brain, such as electroencephalogram (EEG), in implying subcortical activations of the fear extinction network. Such EEG studies have also found evidence of a relationship between brain reactivity to unpleasant stimuli (i.e., fear extinction) and severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). Therefore, the present paper seeks to briefly review the parallel findings between the neurophysiological literature of mindfulness and fear extinction (particularly that yielded by EEG measures), and discusses the implications of this for fear-based psychopathologies, such as trauma, and finally presents suggestions for future studies. This paper also discusses the clinical value in integrating EEG in psychological treatment for trauma, as it holds the unique potential to detect neuromarkers, which may enable earlier diagnoses, and can also provide neurofeedback over the course of treatment.

On Variation in Mindfulness Training: A Multimodal Study of Brief Open Monitoring Meditation on Error Monitoring

A nascent line of research aimed at elucidating the neurocognitive mechanisms of mindfulness has consistently identified a relationship between mindfulness and error monitoring. However, the exact nature of this relationship is unclear, with studies reporting divergent outcomes. The current study sought to clarify the ambiguity by addressing issues related to construct heterogeneity and technical variation in mindfulness training. Specifically, we examined the effects of a brief open monitoring (OM) meditation on neural (error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe)) and behavioral indices of error monitoring in one of the largest novice non-meditating samples to date (N = 212). Results revealed that the OM meditation enhanced Pe amplitude relative to active controls but did not modulate the ERN or behavioral performance. Moreover, exploratory analyses yielded no relationships between trait mindfulness and the ERN or Pe across either group. Broadly, our findings suggest that technical variation in scope and object of awareness during mindfulness training may differentially modulate the ERN and Pe. Conceptual and methodological implications pertaining to the operationalization of mindfulness and its training are discussed.

Be well: A systems-based wellness intervention using mindfulness in the workplace – A case study

Introduction: Healthy work environments are essential in determining improved well-being of Australians. Job stress has been identified as a significant factor in psychological distress. This study evaluated the effect of introducing a systems-based workplace wellness programme using mindfulness in the workplace. Methods: The programme ‘Be Well’ was introduced as part of a systems-based approach to workplace health promotion, and evaluated using sick leave as a proxy for workplace stress, and the stress satisfaction offset score to determine the degree of change in stress and satisfaction. Results: There was significant reduction in sick leave (2014 vs. 2012) (p<.001), and significant improvement in stress satisfaction offset score (p<.05). Logistic regression analysis identified the programme components most predictive of reduced stress and higher job satisfaction. Conclusion: The impacts of a systems-based mindfulness workplace wellness intervention, show significant improvements in workers’ sick leave and changes to stress and satisfaction scores. This study has implications for sector-wide policy change in the workplace.

Understanding Meditation Based on the Subjective Experience and Traditional Goal: Implications for Current Meditation Research

Owing to its benefits on various cognitive aspects, one's emotions, and well-being, meditation has drawn interest from several researchers and common public alike. We have different meditation practices associated with many cultures and traditions across the globe. Current literature suggests significant changes in the neural activity among the different practices of meditation, as each of these practices contributes to distinct physiological and psychological effects. Although this is the case, we want to find out if there is an underlying commonality among all these different practices. Thus, we ask the following questions related to different practices of meditation, the traditional goal of meditation and its significance-what is the central purpose of meditation? Do traditions define the final goal of all the practices of meditation? Are the purpose and goal of these practices different or is there a common goal to be attained through all these distinct practices? Embracing the traditional perspective, through this paper, we want to emphasize that, although these techniques and practices may appear different on the periphery, eventually, they seem to subject one to the same experience at the end, a natural meditative state (discussed in various spiritual traditions as the goal of meditation). In view of future studies on different meditation practices and also those exploring this subjective state, we offer some interesting ideas based on the traditional insights into meditation. In this context, we would also like to make a few comments on the way contemporary researchers view different practices of meditation.

Self-related processing in mindfulness-based interventions

Self-related processing pertains to the complex construct of 'self', as studied across varied disciplines such as cognitive science, neuroscience, modern psychology (including clinical and behavioral psychology), and Western and Eastern philosophy. On a theoretical level, most contemporary models propose that mindfulness training impacts self-related processes. In this review, the empirical evidence for this hypothesis is examined and discussed. Overall, very few self-related processes have been measured in randomized controlled trials of mindfulness-based interventions to date, and, of those processes that have been measured, only negative self-rumination improved significantly. The data so far remain inconclusive as to whether mindfulness-based interventions have an impact on other self-related processes. Studies are especially needed on more basic levels of self such as embodiment and sense of agency.

Mindfulness Training Supports Quality of Life and Advance Care Planning in Adults With Metastatic Cancer and Their Caregivers: Results of a Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Emotional distress often causes patients with cancer and their family caregivers (FCGs) to avoid end-of-life discussions and advance care planning (ACP), which may undermine quality of life (QoL). Most ACP interventions fail to address emotional barriers that impede timely ACP.

AIM

We assessed feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effects of a mindfulness-based intervention to facilitate ACP for adults with advanced-stage cancer and their FCGs.

DESIGN

A single-arm pilot was conducted to assess the impact of a 6-week group mindfulness intervention on ACP behaviors (patients only), QoL, family communication, avoidant coping, distress, and other outcomes from baseline (T1) to post-intervention (T2) and 1 month later (T3).

PARTICIPANTS

Eligible patients had advanced-stage solid malignancies, limited ACP engagement, and an FCG willing to participate. Thirteen dyads (N = 26 participants) enrolled at an academic cancer center in the United States.

RESULTS

Of eligible patients, 59.1% enrolled. Attendance (70.8% across 6 sessions) and retention (84.6% for patients; 92.3% for FCGs) through T3 were acceptable. Over 90% of completers reported high intervention satisfaction. From T1 to T3, patient engagement more than doubled in each of 3 ACP behaviors assessed. Patients reported large significant decreases in distress at T2 and T3. Family caregivers reported large significant improvements in QoL and family communication at T2 and T3. Both patients and FCGs reported notable reductions in sleep disturbance and avoidant coping at T3.

CONCLUSIONS

The mindfulness intervention was feasible and acceptable and supported improvements in ACP and associated outcomes for patients and FCGs. A randomized trial of mindfulness training for ACP is warranted. The study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with identifier NCT02367508 ( https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02367508 ).

All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies

Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) have made important contributions to resolving the global burden of mental illness. However, response rates are comparatively more modest for the distress disorders. Newer CBTs enriched with MBI components have emerged with promising findings for distress disorders but with a high degree of heterogeneity and, subsequently, an unclear path for determining the unique and synergistic contributions from CBTs and MBIs. We propose that one way to elucidate and improve upon this union is to identify common overarching principles (i.e. attention change; metacognitive change) that guide both approaches and to refine therapeutic processes to optimally reflect these common targets and their interplay (e.g. sequencing and dosing).

The Role of Heart Rate Variability in Mindfulness-Based Pain Relief

Mindfulness meditation is a self-regulatory practice premised on sustaining nonreactive awareness of arising sensory events that reliably reduces pain. Yet, the specific analgesic mechanisms supporting mindfulness have not been comprehensively disentangled from the potential nonspecific factors supporting this technique. Increased parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity is associated with pain relief corresponding to a number of cognitive manipulations. However, the relationship between the PNS and mindfulness-based pain attenuation remains unknown. The primary objective of the present study was to determine the role of high-frequency heart rate variability (HF HRV), a marker of PNS activity, during mindfulness-based pain relief as compared to a validated, sham-mindfulness meditation technique that served as a breathing-based control. Sixty-two healthy volunteers (31 females; 31 males) were randomized to a 4-session (25 min/session) mindfulness or sham-mindfulness training regimen. Before and after each group's respective training, participants were administered noxious (49°C) and innocuous (35°C) heat to the right calf. HF HRV and respiration rate were recorded during thermal stimulation and pain intensity and unpleasantness ratings were collected after each stimulation series. The primary analysis revealed that during mindfulness meditation, higher HF HRV was more strongly associated with lower pain unpleasantness ratings when compared to sham-mindfulness meditation (B = -.82, P = .04). This finding is in line with the prediction that mindfulness-based meditation engages distinct mechanisms from sham-mindfulness meditation to reduce pain. However, the same prediction was not confirmed for pain intensity ratings (B = -.41). Secondary analyses determined that mindfulness and sham-mindfulness meditation similarly reduced pain ratings, decreased respiration rate, and increased HF HRV (between group ps < .05). More mechanistic work is needed to reliably determine the role of parasympathetic activation in mindfulness-based pain relief as compared to other meditative techniques. Perspective: Mindfulness has been shown to engage multiple mechanisms to reduce pain. The present study extends on this work to show that higher HRV is associated with mindfulness-induced reductions in pain unpleasantness, but not pain intensity ratings, when compared to sham-mindfulness meditation. These findings warrant further investigation into the mechanisms engaged by mindfulness as compared to placebo.

Measuring cognitive outcomes in mindfulness-based intervention research: a reflection on confounding factors and methodological limitations

One potential pathway by which mindfulness-based meditation improves health outcomes is through changes in cognitive functioning. Here, we summarize and comment upon three systematic reviews conducted over the last seven years that have had the goal of identifying the impact of mindfulness on cognitive outcomes. In our analysis, we identified a number of methodological limitations and potential confounding factors that interfere with and limit our ability to interpret the results. In order to gain a granular view of the relationship between mindfulness training and cognition, we report on the following: 1) What do we know? How does mindfulness affect cognition? 2) variable criteria that define an MBI; 2) limitations of assays used to measure cognition; and 3) methodological quality of an MBI trial and reporting of findings. Finally, we offer constructive means for interpretation and recommendations for moving the field of mindfulness research forward regarding effects on cognition.

Self-Regulation as a Basic Element of the Professional Culture of Engineers

This paper addresses the problem of the formation of the self-regulation of educational activities of students studying in a technical university. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the problem of the self-regulation of educational activities of students, presenting data from an experimental study of students’ self-regulation. Special attention is paid to the distinction between the terms self-control and self-regulation. This paper presents data on the state of self-regulation among students studying technical specialties. The research methodology is based on the theoretical analysis of the results of scientific works, which present the main provisions on the formation of students’ self-regulation. The research methods include questioning and a methodical experiment. The stages of the formation of students’ self-regulation are highlighted, and the main directions of teachers’ work on the formation of students’ self-regulation are determined. The structure of self-regulation is described and the condition for its formation is justified using the technology of self-regulation formation. Based on the study, students’ self-regulation is linked to the awareness of their professional and personal goals, as well as to the level of regulatory and reflective qualities. Personal and professional self-improvement in the process of vocational education depends on the level of the formation of regulatory and reflexive qualities.

Mindfulness, Trust, and Leader Effectiveness: A Conceptual Framework

In this conceptual research, the authors develop an integrative framework for the relationship between mindfulness and leader effectiveness. Mindfulness is suggested to affect leader effectiveness via its impact on leader characteristics and behaviors that enable trust based relationships between the leader and followers. The paper provides detailed overviews of trust and mindfulness and their relationship to leadership. In-depth theoretical reflections on the linkages among the relevant concepts are offered. Of particular interest are the relationships between mindfulness mechanisms, leader characteristics and behaviors, and trustworthiness and trust.

The Neural Correlate Difference Between Positive and Negative Awe

Awe is an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that transcend current frames of reference. Narrative and experimental work has characterized two distinct variants of awe: positive and negative; however, little is known about the structural neural basis associated with the differences of these two variants of awe. In this study, we investigated the structural neural basis of positive and negative awe underlying individual differences among 62 young healthy adults. Specifically, we assessed the association between regional gray matter volume (rGMV) and the two different variants of awe using the voxel-based morphometry (VBM). A partial correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between rGMV and behavioral positive and negative awe, while controlling for sex, age and total GMV. VBM indicated that positive awe was positively correlated with GMV in the precuneus, and negatively correlated with GMV in the left fusiform and the right calcarine. Negative awe was negatively correlated with GMV in the left and right insula, and the left superior temporal gyrus. These results provide a neural explanation for the differences of these two variants of awe.

Neurocognitive Enhancement Effects of Combined Mindfulness-Neurofeedback Training in Sport

To foster performance across all levels of sports practice, physical training has been integrated with various mental training practices. Recently, an integrative approach to neurocognitive enhancement tried to combine the strengths of mental practices (i.e. mindfulness) and of training with neurofeedback devices. Based on previous validation studies showing the effect of a combined mindfulness-neurofeedback program on neurocognitive efficiency and stress/anxiety levels, we aimed at testing the feasibility and potential of that intensive combined program for improving psychological well-being and attention regulation in sport contexts. 50 participants (sportspeople and volunteers not regularly involved in sports) were divided into groups undergoing experimental and active control training programs. The experimental one was based on breathing-awareness practices supported by a wearable neurofeedback, while the active control one included only breathing practices. Before and after training participants underwent standardized neuropsychological and electrophysiological assessment. Data analysis highlighted a significant reduction of response times and false alarms at computerized cognitive tasks in sportspeople who completed the training, as well as a consistent improvement of the N2 event-related potential - a marker of attention regulation processes. We have also observed a general reduction of perceived stress and increased ability to keep a non-evaluative stance. Findings extend available observations on cognitive and neural effects of combined mindfulness-neurofeedback practice by showing that it is possible to observe training effects even after a limited period of practice among sportspeople. Such early training effects might mirror optimized implicit learning curves due to peculiar sensitivity to bodily signals and awareness.

Exploration of psychological mechanisms of the reduced stress response in long-term meditation practitioners

Previous research links contemplative practices, such as meditation, with stress reduction. However, little is known about the psychological mechanisms underlying this relationship. This study compares the physiological stress response (reactivity and recovery) measured by changes in salivary cortisol, heart rate, heart rate variability, and the associated stress-related ratings in long-term meditation practitioners (N = 29) and age- and sex- matched meditation naïve controls (N = 26). The participants were administered the Trier Social Stress Test in its active and placebo versions. The results demonstrated that long-term meditation practitioners had faster cortisol recovery from stress, and experienced less shame and higher self-esteem after the exposure to social-evaluative threat. In addition, long-term meditation practitioners scored higher on adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies, such as acceptance and positive reappraisal, and lower on maladaptive ones, such as catastrophizing. The cognitive emotion regulation strategy of acceptance mediated the relationship between meditation practice and cortisol recovery. These results suggest that meditation practice is associated with faster recovery from stress due to the employment of adaptive emotion regulation strategy of acceptance, delineating a pathway underlying the positive effects of meditation on stress.

A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness in patients with schizophrenia✰

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is frequently used to attenuate the severity of positive schizophrenia symptoms; however, few studies have focused on attenuating negative symptoms. Recently, researchers have become interested in the effects of mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) on schizophrenia, but the lack of evidence-based results from random clinical trials (RCTs) has limited their effectiveness. Moreover, longitudinal data must be examined using appropriate study designs. We recruited 60 schizophrenia patients and randomly assigned them to an MBI or to a treatment-as-usual group. Negative symptoms, positive symptoms, mindfulness, and depression were assessed at baseline, post-course, and at a 3-month follow-up. Descriptive analysis and generalized estimating equations (GEEs) were used to examine the effects of MBI. We found that MBI mitigated the severity of negative symptoms and of general schizophrenic psychopathology except for the positive symptoms and for those of depression. Unexpectedly, we did not find long-term effect of mindfulness on negative symptoms. Larger sample sizes, long-term practical course, more rigorous study procedures, and a double-blind design should be considered in future studies.

Exploring the Role of Meditation and Dispositional Mindfulness on Social Cognition Domains: A Controlled Study

Research suggests that mindfulness can induce changes in the social domain, such as enhancing emotional connection to others, prosocial behavior, and empathy. However, despite growing interest in mindfulness in social psychology, very little is known about the effects of mindfulness on social cognition. Consequently, the aim of this study was to explore the relationship between mindfulness and social cognition by comparing meditators with non-meditators on several social cognition measures. A total of 60 participants (meditators, n = 30; non-meditators, n = 30) were matched on sex, age, and ethnic group, and then asked to complete the following assessment measures: Mindful Awareness Attention Scale (MAAS), Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire Short Form (FFMQ-SF), Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), Revised Eyes Test, Hinting Task, Ambiguous Intentions and Hostility Questionnaire (AIHQ), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and Screening for Cognitive Impairment in Psychiatry (SCIP). The results showed that meditators reported higher empathy (except for the personal distress subscale), higher emotional recognition, higher theory of mind (ToM), and lower hostile attributional style/bias. The findings also demonstrated that dispositional mindfulness (both total score assessed with MAAS and mindfulness facets using the FFMQ) was associated with social cognition, although it was not equally correlated with all social cognition outcomes, and correlation patterns differ when analyses were conducted separately for meditators and non-meditators. In addition, results showed potential predictors for each social cognition variable, highlighting non-reactivity to inner experience as a key component of mindfulness in order to explain social cognition performance. In summary, the findings indicated that the meditator sample performed better on certain qualities (i.e., empathy, emotional recognition, ToM, hostile attributional style/bias) in comparison to non-meditators and, furthermore, support the notion that mindfulness is related to social cognition, which may have implications for the design of mindfulness-based approaches for use in clinical and non-clinical settings.

Mindfulness Training and Physical Health: Mechanisms and Outcomes

OBJECTIVE

There has been substantial research and public interest in mindfulness interventions, biological pathways, and health for the past two decades. This article reviews recent developments in understanding relationships between mindfulness interventions and physical health.

METHODS

A selective review was conducted with the goal of synthesizing conceptual and empirical relationships between mindfulness interventions and physical health outcomes.

RESULTS

Initial randomized controlled trials in this area suggest that mindfulness interventions can improve pain management outcomes among chronic pain populations, and there is preliminary evidence for mindfulness interventions improving specific stress-related disease outcomes in some patient populations (i.e., clinical colds, psoriasis, irritable bowel syndrome, posttraumatic stress disorder, diabetes, HIV). We offer a stress-buffering framework for the observed beneficial effects of mindfulness interventions and summarize supporting biobehavioral and neuroimaging studies that provide plausible mechanistic pathways linking mindfulness interventions with positive physical health outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude with new opportunities for research and clinical implementations to consider in the next two decades.

Mindfulness Training: Can It Create Superheroes?

With the emergence of the science of heroism there now exists both theoretical and empirical literature on the characteristics of our everyday hero. We seek to expand this inquiry and ask what could be the causes and conditions of a superhero. To address this we investigate the origins of mindfulness, Buddhist psychology and the assertion that its practitioners who have attained expertise in mindfulness practices can develop supernormal capabilities. Examining first their foundational eight "jhana" states (levels of attention) and the six consequent "abhinnas" (siddhis or special abilities) that arise from such mental mastery, we then explore any evidence that mindfulness practices have unfolded the supernormal potential of its practitioners. We found a growing base of empirical literature suggesting some practitioners exhibit indicators of enhanced functioning including elevated physical health and resistance to disease, increased immunity to aging and improved cognitive processing, greater resilience and fearlessness, more self-less and pro-social behaviors, some control over normally autonomic responses, and possibly some paranormal functionality. These improvements in normal human functioning provide some evidence that there are practices that develop these abilities, and as such we might want to consider adopting them to develop this capability. There are however insufficient studies of expert meditators and more research of adepts is called for that explores the relationship between levels of attentional skill and increases in functionality. We propose in search of the superhero, that if conventional mindfulness training can already augment mental and physical capabilities, a more serious inquiry and translation of its advanced methods into mainstream psychological theory is warranted.

Effects of Mindfulness-Based Positive Behavior Support (MBPBS) Training Are Equally Beneficial for Mothers and Their Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder or With Intellectual Disabilities

Parenting a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or intellectual disabilities (IDs) can be stressful for many parents. Mindfulness-Based Positive Behavior Support (MBPBS) is a customized mindfulness program that enables parents and other caregivers to reduce their perceived psychological stress to normative levels through mindfulness procedures and to support children with ASD or ID to self-manage their challenging behaviors through positive behavior support (PBS). In this study, we evaluated whether MBPBS would have differential effects on the stress levels of mothers of adolescents with ASD (n = 47) or with ID (n = 45) and the effects of the program on the aggressive, disruptive, and compliance behaviors of their children. Both groups of mothers participated in the 40-week study (10 weeks control and 30 weeks MBPBS program), rated their own stress levels, and collected daily observational data on the adolescents' behavior. Results showed significant reductions in the level of stress in both groups of mothers, but no differential effects on mothers of children with ASD or with ID. In addition, significant reductions in aggression and disruptive behavior and increases in compliance behaviors were observed in the adolescents in both groups. The results suggest that MBPBS is equally beneficial for mothers of adolescents with ASD or ID. In the present study, although the mothers of children with ID had slightly higher levels of stress at baseline and mothers of children with ASD had lower levels of stress following the MBPBS program, the program can be considered equally effective in reducing the stress levels of both groups of mothers. This suggests that the program may be effective regardless of baseline levels of mothers' stress.

Effects of technology-mediated mindfulness practice on stress: psychophysiological and self-report measures

Repeated exposure to stressors, even if mild, may alter the efficiency of optimal stress responses and hinder emotion regulation skills. Mindfulness meditation, by strengthening self-regulation and awareness, may optimize the efficiency of physiological, cognitive, and behavioral reactions to stressful events but typically requires notable commitment to practice, which often leads to disengagement. Recent research suggested that such practices may be made more accessible and that the potential for self-enhancement and stress management of meditation might be improved by supporting mental training with wearable neurofeedback devices able to inform the practicer on ongoing modulation of bodily and brain activity. This study aimed at testing the effect of such novel training approach based on the integration of mental training with brain-sensing wearable devices on physiological (heart rate and variability) and subjective markers of stress (perceived stress, anxiety, and mood states). Participants (N = 55) have been randomly divided into an active control (CONTg) and an experimental group (EXPg). Both groups completed a four-week training constituted by brief daily activities based on mindfulness practices. Experimental participants practiced with the support of dedicated brain-sensing devices. By analyzing pre- and post-training assessments, we observed relevantly decreased stress and anxiety measures in EXPg, as well as relevantly decreased mental fatigue and increased vigor. EXPg also showed improved physiological markers of vagal tone both at rest and during exposure to a cognitive stressor. Reported findings add to the limited available literature on potential effects of technology-supported mental training protocols for promoting subjective well-being and enhancing self-regulation skills.

How mindfulness training promotes positive emotions: Dismantling acceptance skills training in two randomized controlled trials

Mindfulness meditation interventions-which train skills in monitoring present-moment experiences with a lens of acceptance-have shown promise for increasing positive emotions. Using a theory-based approach, we hypothesized that learning acceptance skills in mindfulness interventions helps people notice more positive experiences in daily life, and tested whether removing acceptance training from mindfulness interventions would eliminate intervention-related boosts in positive affect. In 2 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of stressed community adults, mindfulness skills were dismantled into 2 structurally equivalent interventions: (a) training in both monitoring and acceptance (Monitor + Accept) and (b) training in monitoring only (Monitor Only) without acceptance training. Study 1 tested 8-week group-based Monitor + Accept and Monitor Only interventions compared with a no treatment control group. Study 2 tested 2-week smartphone-based Monitor + Accept and Monitor Only interventions compared with an active control training. In both studies, end-of-day and momentary positive affect and negative affect were measured in daily life for 3 days pre- and post-intervention using ambulatory assessments. As predicted, across 2 RCTs, Monitor + Accept training increased positive affect compared with both Monitor Only and control groups. In Study 1, this effect was observed in end-of-day positive affect. In Study 2, this effect was found in both end-of-day and momentary positive affect outcomes. In contrast, all active interventions in Studies 1 and 2 decreased negative affect. These studies provide the first experimental evidence that developing an orientation of acceptance toward present-moment experiences is a central mechanism of mindfulness interventions for boosting positive emotions in daily life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

A neurobehavioral account for decentering as the salve for the distressed mind

Distress is commonly characterized by prolonged internal suffering that can range from self-focused processing of negative emotions and stressors, to highly intensely aversive and prolonged emotional states, thereby, worsening or complicating emotional and physical conditions. Decentering represents a metacognitive capacity thought to reflect three interrelated processes: meta-awareness, disidentification from internal experience, and reduced reactivity to thought content-which is reliably increased with mindfulness-based interventions. In this essay, we seek to link the clinical presentation of distress disorders to known or hypothesized disruptions in neural networks that underlie emotion, cognition, and goal directed behavior, and offer a neurobehavioral account for how and why treatments imbued with mindfulness meditation might ameliorate these conditions, in part through increases in decentering.

How does mindfulness training improve moral cognition: a theoretical and experimental framework for the study of embodied ethics

Mindfulness meditation has been primarily studied within the context of individual's psychological well being and/or in relation to it's potential to enhance cognitive skills such as attention and working memory. However, in Buddhism, mindfulness is used as a tool to cultivate wholesome actions, and as a means to promote virtuous, prosocial qualities. In this article, we postulate that heightened awareness of physiological and mental phenomena following mindfulness training may contribute to altered processing of morally relevant information and promote moral action. We will first briefly summarize neuroscientific investigations into moral cognition, and then provide a theoretical and an experimental framework for the investigation of the relationship between mindfulness and ethical behavior.

Clarifying the relationship between mindfulness and executive attention: a combined behavioral and neurophysiological study

Mindfulness is frequently associated with improved attention. However, the nature of the relationship between mindfulness and executive attention, a core function of the attentional system, is surprisingly unclear. Studies employing behavioral measures of executive attention have been equivocal. Although neuroscientific studies have yielded more consistent findings, reporting functional and structural changes in executive attention brain regions, the observed changes in brain activity have not been linked to behavioral performance. The current study aimed to fill these gaps in the literature by examining the extent to which trait mindfulness related to behavioral and neurophysiological (indexed by the stimulus-locked P3) measures of executive attention. Results revealed that higher trait mindfulness was related to less flanker interference on accuracy and reaction time, consistent with enhanced executive attention. Critically, mediational analyses showed that the P3 accounted for the relationship between trait mindfulness and executive attention performance, elucidating a neural mechanism through which mindfulness enhances executive attention.

Mindfulness and fertility quality of life in Chinese women with infertility: assessing the mediating roles of acceptance, autonomy and self-regulation

Objectives: To examine whether high dispositional mindfulness was associated with heightened specific aspects of fertility quality of life (FertiQoL) in infertile women, and whether acceptance, autonomy and self-regulation, mediated any association. Background: Quality of life is one of the most important issues to be addressed in infertility counselling. A large body of evidence reveals that populations with higher dispositional mindfulness fare better than their less mindful counterparts on psychological well-being. However, no research has examined the influence of mindfulness on infertile women's FertiQoL and potential mechanisms underlying these associations. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of infertile women attending to Southwest Hospital, China. Standardized measures of FertiQoL and proposed mediators (self-regulation, acceptance and autonomy) were administered at the conclusion of the patient's medical appointment from December 2015 to March 2016. Structural equation modelling was used to test the hypothesised mediation model. Results: Mindfulness was positively related to Core and Treatment FertiQoL. Higher mindfulness was related to higher autonomous and self-regulatory abilities, as well as lower experiential avoidance, which in turn resulted in better Treatment FertiQoL. Meanwhile, mindfulness exerted its indirect effect on Core FertiQoL through self-regulation. However, acceptance and autonomy could not mediate the link between mindfulness and Core FertiQoL. Conclusion: Mindfulness appears to be a protective individual characteristic of infertile women, and self-regulation, autonomy and acceptance may be implicated in the effects of mindfulness on specific aspects of FertiQoL. The findings can provide useful suggestions to design mindfulness-based interventions aiming at improving FertiQoL in infertile women, by adding or emphasising intentional self-regulation, autonomy and acceptance components.

Metacognitive processes model of decentering: emerging methods and insights

We previously proposed that three metacognitive processes - meta-awareness, disidentification from internal experience, and reduced reactivity to thought content - together constitute decentering. We review emerging methods to study these metacognitive processes and the novel insights they provide regarding the nature and salutary function(s) of decentering. Specifically, we review novel psychometric studies of self-report scales of decentering, as well as studies using intensive experience sampling, novel behavioral assessments, and experimental micro-interventions designed to target the metacognitive processes. Findings support the theorized inter-relations of the metacognitive processes, help to elucidate the pathways through which they may contribute to mental health, and provide preliminary evidence of their salutary roles as mechanisms of action in mindfulness-based interventions.