Plasminogen is a critical host pathogenicity factor for group A streptococcal infection

Structural basis for reduced staphylocoagulase-mediated bovine prothrombin activation

Staphylocoagulase (SC) is a protein secreted by the human pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus, that activates human prothrombin (ProT) by inducing a conformational change. SC-bound ProT efficiently clots fibrinogen, thus bypassing the physiological blood coagulation pathway. The crystal structure of a fully active SC fragment, SC-(1-325), bound to human prethrombin 2 showed that the SC-(1-325) N terminus inserts into the Ile(16) pocket of prethrombin 2, thereby inducing expression of a functional catalytic site in the cognate zymogen without peptide bond cleavage. As shown here, SC-(1-325) binds to bovine and human ProT with similar affinity but activates the bovine zymogen only very poorly. By contrast to the approximately 2-fold difference in chromogenic substrate kinetic constants between human thrombin and the SC-(1-325).human (pro)thrombin complexes, SC-(1-325).bovine ProT shows a 3,500-fold lower k(cat)/K(m) compared with free bovine thrombin, because of a 47-fold increase in K(m) and a 67-fold decrease in k(cat). The SC-(1-325).bovine ProT complex is approximately 5,800-fold less active compared with its human counterpart. Comparison of human and bovine fibrinogen as substrates of human and bovine thrombin and the SC-(1-325).(pro)thrombin complexes indicates that the species specificity of SC-(1-325) cofactor activity is determined primarily by differences in conformational activation of bound ProT. These results suggest that the catalytic site in the SC-(1-325).bovine ProT complex is incompletely formed. The current crystal structure of SC-(1-325).bovine thrombin reveals that SC would dock similarly to the bovine proenzyme, whereas the bovine (pro)thrombin-characteristic residues Arg(144) and Arg(145) would likely interfere with insertion of the SC N terminus, thus explaining the greatly reduced activation of bovine ProT.

Structural diversity of streptokinase and activation of human plasminogen

The beta domain of streptokinase is required for plasminogen activation and contains a region of sequence diversity associated with infection and disease in group A streptococci. We report that mutagenesis of this polymorphic region does not alter plasminogen activation, which suggests an alternative function for this molecular motif in streptococcal disease.

Is plasminogen deployed as a Streptococcus pyogenes virulence factor?

Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus) causes human skin and throat infections as well as highly invasive diseases including necrotizing fasciitis. Group A streptococcal infections and invasive disease have made a resurgence in developed countries during the past two decades. S. pyogenes use multiple pathways for the acquisition and activation of human plasminogen, securing potent proteolytic activity on the bacterial cell surface. Recent experimental evidence using a humanized transgenic mouse model suggests a crucial role for human plasminogen in the dissemination of S. pyogenes in vivo.

Infection-stimulated fibrin deposition controls hemorrhage and limits hepatic bacterial growth during listeriosis

Bacterial infections are major causes of human mortality. The activation of coagulation pathways leading to the deposition of insoluble fibrin frequently accompanies bacterial infection, and much attention has focused upon the pathological attributes of infection-stimulated fibrin deposition. Nevertheless, here we present conclusive evidence that infection-stimulated fibrin deposition can perform critical protective functions during bacterial infection. Specifically, we demonstrate that coagulation-impaired fibrin(ogen)-deficient mice, in comparison with genetically matched control mice, display increased mortality upon peritoneal infection with the gram-positive facultative intracellular bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. To distinguish effects of fibrinogen from those of fibrin, we treat wild-type mice with warfarin, an anticoagulant that suppresses fibrin formation without impacting fibrinogen levels. Warfarin treatment exacerbates listeriosis, suggesting that fibrin is the key mediator of protection. With regard to the underlying protective mechanisms, we demonstrate that fibrin(ogen) suppresses anemia, reduces hemorrhagic pathology, and limits bacterial growth during listeriosis. Despite confirming a prior report that fibrin(ogen) promotes the peritoneal clearance of the extracellular bacterium Staphylococcal aureus, we demonstrate that fibrin(ogen) plays little role in controlling peritoneal numbers of L. monocytogenes bacteria or the dissemination of L. monocytogenes bacteria from the peritoneal cavity. Rather, fibrin(ogen) primarily limits the growth of these intracellular bacteria within hepatic tissue. While the pathological potential of excessive infection-stimulated fibrin deposition is well appreciated, our findings reveal that fibrin can function protectively, via multiple mechanisms, during bacterial infection.

Influence of Steric and Electronic Properties of the Defect Site, Lanthanide Ionic Radii, and Solution Conditions on the Composition of Lanthanide(III) α1-P2W17O6110- Polyoxometalates

This study identifies the principles that govern the formation and stability of Ln complexes of the (alpha(1)-P(2)W(17)O(61))(10-) isomer. The conditional stability constants for the stepwise formation equilibria, K(1cond) and K(2cond), determined by (31)P NMR spectroscopy, show that the high log K(1cond)/log K(2cond) ratio predicts the stabilization of the 1:1 Ln/ (alpha(1)-P(2)W(17)O(61))(10-) species. The value of log K(1cond) increases as the Ln series is traversed, consistent with the high charge/size requirement of the basic alpha(1) defect site. The conditional stability constants, K(2), are very low and are highly dependent on the countercations in the buffer. The source of the instability is understood from the crystal structures of the early-mid lanthanide analogues, where the close contact of the (alpha(1)-P(2)W(17)O(61))(10-) units result in severe steric encumbrance. The electronic properties of the alpha(1) defect along with the lanthanide ionic radii and countercation composition are important parameters that need to be considered for a rational synthesis of lanthanide polyoxometalates.

Bacterial metastasis: the host plasminogen system in bacterial invasion

Several pathogenic bacterial species intervene with the mammalian proteolytic plasminogen-plasmin system. Recent developments have been made in understanding the structure and the virulence-associated functions of bacterial plasminogen receptors and activators, in particular by using plasminogen-deficient or transgenic gain-of-function mice. Bacteria can affect the regulation of the plasminogen system by degrading circulating plasmin inhibitors and by influencing the expression levels of mammalian plasminogen activators and activation inhibitors. Interaction with the plasminogen system promotes damage of extracellular matrices as well as bacterial spread and organ invasion during infection, suggesting common mechanisms in migration of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

Uncovering the mysteries of invasive streptococcal diseases

Group A streptococci, although considered extracellular pathogens, are capable of causing severe life-threatening invasive infections, such as necrotising fasciitis, bacteraemia and toxic-shock-like syndrome. A complete understanding of the mechanism by which these organisms cause invasive disease has been hampered by the extreme human specificity and high genetic diversity among group A streptococci. Three recent papers have uncovered some of the mysteries of streptococcal invasive diseases. Using two different technologies, these papers have contributed enormously towards our understanding of the molecular events underlying streptococcal invasive diseases.