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Stapleton JT. Human Pegivirus Type 1: A Common Human Virus That Is Beneficial in Immune-Mediated Disease? Front Immunol 2022; 13:887760. [PMID: 35707535 PMCID: PMC9190258 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.887760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Two groups identified a novel human flavivirus in the mid-1990s. One group named the virus hepatitis G virus (HGV) and the other named it GB Virus type C (GBV-C). Sequence analyses found these two isolates to be the same virus, and subsequent studies found that the virus does not cause hepatitis despite sharing genome organization with hepatitis C virus. Although HGV/GBV-C infection is common and may cause persistent infection in humans, the virus does not appear to directly cause any other known disease state. Thus, the virus was renamed “human pegivirus 1” (HPgV-1) for “persistent G” virus. HPgV-1 is found primarily in lymphocytes and not hepatocytes, and several studies found HPgV-1 infection associated with prolonged survival in people living with HIV. Co-infection of human lymphocytes with HPgV-1 and HIV inhibits HIV replication. Although three viral proteins directly inhibit HIV replication in vitro, the major effects of HPgV-1 leading to reduced HIV-related mortality appear to result from a global reduction in immune activation. HPgV-1 specifically interferes with T cell receptor signaling (TCR) by reducing proximal activation of the lymphocyte specific Src kinase LCK. Although TCR signaling is reduced, T cell activation is not abolished and with sufficient stimulus, T cell functions are enabled. Consequently, HPgV-1 is not associated with immune suppression. The HPgV-1 immunomodulatory effects are associated with beneficial outcomes in other diseases including Ebola virus infection and possibly graft-versus-host-disease following stem cell transplantation. Better understanding of HPgV-1 immune escape and mechanisms of inflammation may identify novel therapies for immune-based diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack T. Stapleton
- Medicine Service, Iowa City Veterans Administration Healthcare, Iowa City, IA, United States
- Departments of Internal Medicine, Microbiology & Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
- *Correspondence: Jack T. Stapleton,
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Jõgeda EL, Huik K, Pauskar M, Kallas E, Karki T, Des Jarlais D, Uusküla A, Lutsar I, Avi R. Prevalence and genotypes of GBV-C and its associations with HIV infection among persons who inject drugs in Eastern Europe. J Med Virol 2016; 89:632-638. [PMID: 27603233 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to determine the rate of GBV-C viremia, seropositivity, and genotypes among people who inject drugs (PWID) and healthy volunteers in Estonia and to evaluate associations between GBV-C and sociodemographic factors, intravenous drug use, co-infections. The study included 345 Caucasian PWID and 118 healthy volunteers. The presence of GBV-C RNA (viremia) was determined by reverse transcriptase-nested PCR in 5' long terminal repeat. PCR products were sequenced and genotyped by phylogenetic analysis. GBV-C seropositivity was determined by ELISA. One third of PWID (114/345) and 6% (7/118) of healthy volunteers (OR = 7.8, 95% CI = 3.5-20.5, P < 0.001) were GBV-C viremic. In PWID group, 79% of sequences belonged to subtype 2a, 19% to subtype 2b, and two remained unclassified. In healthy volunteers, six out of seven sequences belonged to subtype 2a and one to subtype 2b. We found HIV+ PWID to have two times increased odds of being GBV-C viremic compared to HIV- PWID (62% vs. 38%; OR = 2.13, 95% CI = 1.34-3.36, P = 0.001). In addition, odds of being GBV-C viremic decreased with increasing age (OR = 0.94, 95% CI = 0.90-0.98, P = 0.001). HIV positivity remained associated with GBV-C viremia in multivariate analysis after adjustment for age (OR = 2.23, 95% CI = 1.39-3.58, P = 0.001). GBV-C seropositivity was similar among PWID and healthy volunteers (2.3% vs. 1.7%, respectively; OR = 1.4, 95% CI =0.3-13.5, P = 1). In an Eastern European country we demonstrated that GBV-C viremia is common among PWID, but uncommon among healthy volunteers, and GBV-C seropositivity is infrequent among both groups. Similarly to other European countries and USA, GBV-C 2a is the most common genotype in Estonia. J. Med. Virol. 89:632-638, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ene-Ly Jõgeda
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kristi Huik
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Merit Pauskar
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Eveli Kallas
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tõnis Karki
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | | | - Anneli Uusküla
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Irja Lutsar
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Radko Avi
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
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Ernst D, Greer M, Akmatova R, Pischke S, Wedemeyer H, Heiken H, Tillmann HL, Schmidt RE, Stoll M. Impact of GB virus C viraemia on clinical outcome in HIV-1-infected patients: a 20-year follow-up study. HIV Med 2013; 15:245-50. [DOI: 10.1111/hiv.12094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D Ernst
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
| | - M Greer
- Department of Pulmonology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
| | - R Akmatova
- Republican ‘AIDS’ Center of Health Ministry of Kyrgyz Republic; Bishkek Kyrgyzstan
| | - S Pischke
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
| | - H Wedemeyer
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
| | - H Heiken
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
| | - HL Tillmann
- Clinical Research Institute; Duke University; Durham NC USA
| | - RE Schmidt
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
| | - M Stoll
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology; Hannover Medical School; Hannover Germany
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Boodram B, Hershow RC, Klinzman D, Stapleton JT. GB virus C infection among young, HIV-negative injection drug users with and without hepatitis C virus infection. J Viral Hepat 2011; 18:e153-9. [PMID: 20738773 PMCID: PMC3543827 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2893.2010.01350.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
Our study examined the association between GB virus C (GBV-C) and (i) hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection status, (ii) biomedical indicators of liver disease (alanine and aspartate aminotransferases) and (iii) HCV RNA level among young injection drug users (IDUs) recruited using street outreach and respondent-driven methods. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were completed. GBV-C (active or resolved) infection was significantly (P < 0.05) more prevalent among HCV antibody-positive (anti-HCV+) (65.1%) than antibody-negative (anti-HCV-) (32.3%) (OR = 3.9, 95% CI: 2.3-6.9) IDUs. The prevalence of resolved GBV-C infection was highest among those with chronic HCV infection (41.9%), followed by those with resolved HCV infection (34.4%) and significantly lower (P < 0.05) among anti-HCV participants (16.9%). Although not statistically significant (P = 0.13), a similar pattern was observed for active GBV-C infection. No association between GBV-C infection status and biomedical indicators of liver disease or HCV RNA level over time was observed. In conclusion, GBV-C infection prevalence was higher among anti-HCV+ compared to anti-HCV- young IDUs, similar to prior studies among older populations. In particular, chronically HCV-infected young IDUs had an increased rate of GBV-C clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Boodram
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - R. C. Hershow
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - D. Klinzman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Iowa City Veterans Administration and the University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - J. T. Stapleton
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Iowa City Veterans Administration and the University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
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Bhanich Supapol W, Remis RS, Raboud J, Millson M, Tappero J, Kaul R, Kulkarni P, McConnell MS, Philip AM, McNicholl JM, Roongpisuthipong A, Chotpitayasunondh T, Shaffer N, Butera S. Prevalence and correlates of GB virus C infection in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected pregnant women in Bangkok, Thailand. J Med Virol 2010; 83:33-44. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Kupfer B, Ruf T, Matz B, Nattermann J, Spengler U, Rockstroh JK, Brackmann HH, Blümel J, Tacke M, Kaiser R. Comparison of GB virus C, HIV, and HCV infection markers in hemophiliacs exposed to non-inactivated or inactivated factor concentrates. J Clin Virol 2005; 34:42-7. [PMID: 16087123 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2005.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2004] [Revised: 01/20/2005] [Accepted: 01/31/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Until the mandatory introduction of viral inactivation techniques of blood plasma products in the early 1980s many recipients of these products were infected with various viral pathogens. OBJECTIVES To determine the rate of transmission of GB virus C/hepatitis G virus (GBV-C/HGV) HCV, and HIV through non-virus-inactivated clotting factor concentrates in hemophiliacs, as well as the relation between amount of administered clotting factor and risk for GBV-C/HGV infection. STUDY DESIGN In this cross-sectional study, we determined retrospectively the rates of infection markers for GBV-C/HGV, HCV, and HIV in a German cohort of hemophiliacs treated with documented amounts of non-virus-inactivated clotting factor concentrates (group A) and in a second group of hemophiliacs who were treated exclusively with virus-inactivated clotting factor (group B). The presence of anti-virus antibodies was determined by ELISA. Viral RNA was detected by RT-PCR. Markers for viral infections were compared to amounts of administered non-virus-inactivated clotting factor. RESULTS Among hemophiliacs treated with documented amounts of non-virus-inactivated clotting factor the prevalence for GBV-C/HGV, HCV, and HIV was 40.3%, 98.6%, and 56.3%, respectively. In contrast to HIV, the rate of GBV-C/HGV infections did not increase with increasing amounts of consumed non-inactivated clotting factor. Even in the subgroup of heavily treated hemophiliacs the rate of GBV-C/HGV infection markers did not exceed 45%. CONCLUSIONS The amount of non-virus-inactivated clotting factor is not predictive for the risk of GBV-C/HGV infection in hemophiliacs. Despite repeated parenteral exposure more than 55% of hemophiliacs were not infected with GBV-C/HGV. Our findings indicate a high frequency of host factors preventing parenteral transmission of GBV-C/HGV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Kupfer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Bonn, Sigmund Freud Str. 25, D-53105 Bonn, Germany
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Björkman P, Flamholc L, Nauclér A, Molnegren V, Wallmark E, Widell A. GB virus C during the natural course of HIV-1 infection: viremia at diagnosis does not predict mortality. AIDS 2004; 18:877-86. [PMID: 15060435 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200404090-00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate whether GBV-C viremia at diagnosis of HIV-1 infection predicts disease outcome in patients not receiving combination antiretroviral therapy (ART), and whether longitudinal changes in GBV-C viremia are associated with disease progression. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. METHODS 230 patients with a serum sample available for testing obtained within 2 years of HIV-1 diagnosis were followed until either initiation of ART, death, or their last visit to our clinic (median follow-up 4.3 years). Baseline and follow-up serum samples (available from 163 patients) were tested for GBV-C RNA and antibodies against GBV-C envelope E2 protein (anti-E2; signifying resolved GBV-C viremia). RESULTS At inclusion, 62 patients (27%) had GBV-C viremia and 69 (30%) had anti-E2. Baseline GBV-C status was not associated with all-cause mortality (P = 0.12), HIV-related mortality (P = 0.18), or development of AIDS (P = 0.84). However, GBV-C RNA was less prevalent in patients with AIDS at inclusion (P = 0.008). Eleven of 44 patients with baseline GBV-C viremia lost GBV-C RNA during follow-up without showing anti-E2 seroconversion. In comparison with anti-E2-negative patients with either persistent absence, persistent presence, or acquisition of GBV-C viremia, these subjects had significantly increased all-cause mortality (P = 0.018), HIV-related mortality (P = 0.007), and AIDS incidence (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS GBV-C status at diagnosis did not predict disease outcome in this HIV cohort. GBV-C viremia was rare in patients with AIDS, and tended to disappear without occurrence of anti-E2 in patients with progressive disease. This suggests that the GBV-C status of HIV-1-infected patients could be a phenomenon secondary to HIV progression, rather than an independent prognostic factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Björkman
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Department of Medical Microbiology, Malmö University Hospital, Lund University, S-205 02 Malmö, Sweden
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Chams V, Fournier-Wirth C, Chabanel A, Hervé P, Trépo C. [Is GB virus C alias "hepatitis" G virus involved in human pathology?]. Transfus Clin Biol 2003; 10:292-306. [PMID: 14563418 DOI: 10.1016/s1246-7820(03)00095-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
GB virus-C alias "hepatitis" virus G was discovered in 1995 as a putative causative virus of non A-E hepatitis. It is a very common virus found in 1 to 5% of eligible blood donors in developed countries. Numerous studies over seven years led to the exclusion of its role as a significant etiological agent of hepatitis. Its in vivo replication site is still unknown. Its direct involvement in the induction of significant hepatic or extra-hepatic diseases could not be demonstrated. However, coinfections with other viruses may contribute to changes in the evolution of both liver disease (negatively) and HIV/AIDS (favourably). Today, no country has decided to screen GBV-C in blood donors. However, more studies are necessary before the absence of influence of GBV-C infection on human health in the context of other viral infections could be confirmed definitely. This article is a review of the literature on a possible involvement of GBV-C in pathologies whether associated or not to other infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Chams
- Etablissement français du sang, 100 avenue de Suffren, 75015 Paris, France.
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George SL, Wünschmann S, McCoy J, Xiang J, Stapleton JT. Interactions Between GB Virus Type C and HIV. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2002; 4:550-558. [PMID: 12433333 DOI: 10.1007/s11908-002-0044-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
GB virus C (GBV-C, also known as hepatitis G virus) commonly causes human infection. Genetically, it is closely related to hepatitis C virus, but GBV-C appears to grow primarily in lymphocytes, not hepatocytes. Although it causes persistent infection in about 25% to 50% of infected individuals, numerous studies have failed to connect GBV-C with any disease process. GBV-C is transmitted sexually, parenterally, and vertically, and due to these shared modes of transmission, coinfection is common among HIV-infected individuals. Of 10 studies done of HIV-GBV-C coinfection, eight found a beneficial effect of GBV-C viremia on HIV-related mortality or response to therapy. The mechanism by which GBV-C may improve survival of HIV-positive people is not known; however, in vitro studies suggest that GBV-C inhibits HIV replication, and preliminary data also point toward alterations in cytokine and/or chemokine expression by GBV-C-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L. George
- Internal Medicine, SW34-P,GH, 200 Hawkins Drive, UIHC, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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Tillmann HL, Manns MP. GB virus-C infection in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Antiviral Res 2001; 52:83-90. [PMID: 11672817 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-3542(01)00172-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis virus infections are frequent in patients suffering from HIV infection due to similar transmission routes of these viruses. In addition, hepatitis virus infections lead to impaired survival in HIV positive patients. The recently discovered flavivirus GB virus C (alias Hepatitis G Virus) was initially believed to be another hepatitis virus. While there is still some minor discussion whether GB virus C (GBV-C) plays a role in fulminant hepatic failure, there is no evidence that this virus is responsible for chronic liver disease. Thus this 'orphan virus' still seeks its disease. In this review we concentrate on the published data concerning the co-infection of GBV-C and HIV. By summarizing the studies available, we show evidence for a beneficial influence of GBV-C on HIV infection. Many studies demonstrated a high prevalence of GBV-C infection in HIV positive patients due to its parenteral and sexual transmission. However, in contrast to the expectations, GBV-C does not aggravate the course of patients suffering from HIV infection. Even though not uniformly found, one often sees higher CD4 counts in patients with ongoing GBV-C viral replication. Likewise, a lower viral load appears to be accompanied by the presence of GBV-C RNA in the serum. In addition, longitudinal studies indicate that GBV-C infection slows down the progression to AIDS and eventually to death. GBV-C probably influences HIV infection associated disease by either directly inhibiting HIV replication or enhancing the immune competence to cope with HIV. Still the definitive mechanism how GBV-C could inhibit the progression to AIDS and eventually death needs to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- H L Tillmann
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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Takamatsu J, Toyoda H, Fukuda Y, Nakano I, Yokozaki S, Hayashi K, Saito H. Effects of HAART on hepatitis C, hepatitis G, and TT virus in multiply coinfected HIV-positive patients with haemophilia. Haemophilia 2001; 7:575-81. [PMID: 11851756 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2516.2001.00567.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In multiply coinfected human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive patients, we investigated the effects of high-activity antiretroviral therapy (HAART) using HIV protease inhibitors on three other viruses: hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis G virus (HGV), and TT virus (TTV). Viral concentrations were measured serially by polymerase chain reaction methods in five patients with quadruple infection (HIV, HCV, HGV, and TTV) and in two patients with triple infection (HIV, HCV, and HGV) before and during HAART. In addition, CD4+ cell counts and serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels were measured serially. Generally we observed no difference in serum HCV RNA, HGV RNA, or TTV DNA concentrations between samples obtained before and after initiation of HAART, whereas HIV RNA concentration decreased and CD4 counts increased in most patients. However, two patients had markedly decreased concentrations of HCV RNA and HGV RNA, respectively, more than 12 months after beginning HAART. Normalization of serum ALT levels was observed in a patient with decline of HCV RNA concentrations. No interactions were observed among these four viruses. HAART had no apparent direct effects on HCV, HGV, or TTV. Further studies will be required to elucidate whether the restoration of immune status through suppression of HIV replication by HAART may affect HCV or HGV RNA concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Takamatsu
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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Toyoda H, Fukuda Y, Takamatsu J. Clearance of hepatitis G viremia in a human immunodeficiency virus-positive patient by high-activity antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29:1332-3. [PMID: 10524990 DOI: 10.1086/313480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- H Toyoda
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan
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Stark K, Doering CD, Bienzle U, Pauli G, Hamouda O, Engel AM, Schreier E. Risk and clearance of GB virus C/hepatitis G virus infection in homosexual men: A longitudinal study. J Med Virol 1999; 59:303-6. [PMID: 10502260 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9071(199911)59:3<303::aid-jmv7>3.0.co;2-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The risk and clearance of GB virus type C (GBV-C)/hepatitis G virus (HGV) infection was investigated in a cohort of homosexual men (n=180; median follow-up time, 7 years). The interaction between GBV-C/HGV RNA and antibodies against the E2 region of the virus, and the clinical impact of chronic GBV-C/HGV infection were studied. GBV-C/HGV RNA was detected by RT-PCR, and E2 antibodies were assessed by an immunoassay. At baseline, 63% of the participants had evidence of previous or current GBV-C/HGV infection. The GBV-C/HGV incidence rate was 2 per 100 person-years (95% confidence interval 0. 9-3.8) and was similar to the HIV incidence. The incidence of GBV-C/HGV infection was significantly higher in those reporting unprotected anal intercourse (3.6 per 100 person-years compared to 0 in the group without such sexual contacts). The occurrence of E2 antibodies was strongly associated with GBV-C/HGV RNA clearance. A loss of E2 antibodies was observed at a rate of 1.5 per 100 person-years. It was higher among HIV-infected individuals. Chronic GBV-C/HGV infection was not associated with clinical or biochemical evidence of liver disease.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Alanine Transaminase/blood
- Cohort Studies
- Flaviviridae/genetics
- Flaviviridae/immunology
- Flaviviridae/isolation & purification
- HIV Antibodies/blood
- Hepatitis Antibodies/blood
- Hepatitis, Chronic/epidemiology
- Hepatitis, Chronic/immunology
- Hepatitis, Chronic/virology
- Hepatitis, Viral, Human/epidemiology
- Hepatitis, Viral, Human/immunology
- Hepatitis, Viral, Human/transmission
- Hepatitis, Viral, Human/virology
- Homosexuality, Male
- Humans
- Incidence
- Male
- RNA, Viral/analysis
- Risk Factors
- Viral Envelope Proteins/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- K Stark
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Charité, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
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