Band-bending in organic semiconductors: the role of alkali-halide interlayers

Accurate molecular recognition from the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

The quantification of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital level (LUMO) for molecular semiconductors is of great importance, because it determines the charge transport process and hence the performances of diverse electronic devices. Unfortunately, there is always lack of a convenient technique to determine the intrinsic LUMO. This work provides a reliable electrical spectroscopy by employing an easy-operating hot electron transistor, to make an accurate measurement. By taking advantage of a novel method, named the first derivative-assisted linear fitting method, the determination of the intrinsic LUMO becomes more scientific. Here, four kinds of molecular semiconductors are selected as the research objects and the values can be precisely decided even with a quite small difference in LUMO, which demonstrate the universality and the accuracy of our method. As expected, all the measured values are highly repeatable and it further confirms that we have provided a practical technique for the LUMO detection.

A novel energy level detector for molecular semiconductors

The multifunction of molecule-based devices is always achieved by improving their charge transport characteristics. These characteristics depend strongly on the energy levels of molecular semiconductors, which fundamentally govern the working principle and device performance. Therefore, an accurate measurement of these energy levels is crucial for evaluating the availability of the prepared materials and thus optimizing the device performance. Here, an easy-to-operate three-terminal hot electron transistor has been developed, which comprises a molecular optoelectronic device that records the charge transport. It achieves exceptional properties including the lowest unoccupied molecular orbit level, highest occupied molecular orbit level, higher energy states, and higher electronic bandgap. When compared with existing techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, inverse photoemission spectroscopy, and ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy, the hot electron transistor provides in-situ characterization and categorizes the measured energy information as intrinsic properties of the molecular semiconductor. Furthermore, we provide an in-depth understanding of the fundamental device-physics, which provides promising guidance for performance optimization.

Mechanism and Timescales of Reversible p-Doping of Methylammonium Lead Triiodide by Oxygen

Understanding and controlling the energy level alignment at interfaces with metal halide perovskites (MHPs) is essential for realizing the full potential of these materials for use in optoelectronic devices. To date, however, the basic electronic properties of MHPs are still under debate. Particularly, reported Fermi level positions in the energy gap vary from indicating strong n- to strong p-type character for nominally identical materials, raising serious questions about intrinsic and extrinsic defects as dopants. ​In this work, photoemission experiments demonstrate that thin films of the prototypical methylammonium lead triiodide (MAPbI3 ) behave like an intrinsic semiconductor in the absence of oxygen. Oxygen is then shown to be able to reversibly diffuse into and out of the MAPbI3 bulk, requiring rather long saturation timescales of ≈1 h (in: ambient air) and over 10 h (out: ultrahigh vacuum), for few 100 nm thick films. Oxygen in the bulk leads to pronounced p-doping, positioning the Fermi level universally ≈0.55 eV above the valence band maximum. The key doping mechanism is suggested to be molecular oxygen substitution of iodine vacancies, supported by density functional theory calculations. This insight rationalizes previous and future electronic property studies of MHPs and calls for meticulous oxygen exposure protocols.

Controlling the electronic and physical coupling on dielectric thin films

Ultrathin dielectric/insulating films on metals are often used as decoupling layers to allow for the study of the electronic properties of adsorbed molecules without electronic interference from the underlying metal substrate. However, the presence of such decoupling layers may effectively change the electron donating properties of the substrate, for example, by lowering its work function and thus enhancing the charging of the molecular adsorbate layer through electron tunneling. Here, an experimental study of the charging of para-sexiphenyl (6P) on ultrathin MgO(100) films supported on Ag(100) is reported. By deliberately changing the work function of the MgO(100)/Ag(100) system, it is shown that the charge transfer (electronic coupling) into the 6P molecules can be controlled, and 6P monolayers with uncharged molecules (Schottky-Mott regime) and charged and uncharged molecules (Fermi level pinning regime) can be obtained. Furthermore, it was found that charge transfer and temperature strongly influence the orientation, conformation, and wetting behavior (physical coupling) of the 6P layers on the MgO(100) thin films.

Binding and electronic level alignment of π-conjugated systems on metals

We review the binding and energy level alignment of π-conjugated systems on metals, a field which during the last two decades has seen tremendous progress both in terms of experimental characterization as well as in the depth of theoretical understanding. Precise measurements of vertical adsorption distances and the electronic structure together with ab initio calculations have shown that most of the molecular systems have to be considered as intermediate cases between weak physisorption and strong chemisorption. In this regime, the subtle interplay of different effects such as covalent bonding, charge transfer, electrostatic and van der Waals interactions yields a complex situation with different adsorption mechanisms. In order to establish a better understanding of the binding and the electronic level alignment of π-conjugated molecules on metals, we provide an up-to-date overview of the literature, explain the fundamental concepts as well as the experimental techniques and discuss typical case studies. Thereby, we relate the geometric with the electronic structure in a consistent picture and cover the entire range from weak to strong coupling.

Distributions of Potential and Contact-Induced Charges in Conventional Organic Photovoltaics

The interfaces of dissimilar materials play central roles in photophysical events in organic photovoltaics (OPVs). Depth profiles of electrostatic potential and contact-induced charges determine the energy-level lineup of the frontier orbitals at electrode/organic and organic heterointerfaces. They are critical for the elementary processes in an OPV cell, such as generation and diffusion of free carriers. A simple electrostatic model describes the energetics in organic heterojunctions supported by an electrode, and experiments via photoelectron spectroscopy and the Kelvin probe method validate the potential distribution in the stacking direction of the device. A comparative study has clarified the significance of Fermi-level pinning and resulting electrostatic fields in determining the energy-level alignment. In this review, we discuss how parameters of device constituents affect the distributions of potential and the dark charges in conventional OPVs comprising metallophthalocyanine and C60 as donor and acceptor, respectively. The results of previous studies, together with additional numerical simulations, suggest that a number of the factors influence the depth profiles of the dark charge and potential, such as the work function of bottom materials, layer thickness, structural inhomogeneity at interfaces, top electrode, and stacking sequence.

Tailoring the growth and electronic structures of organic molecular thin films

In the rapidly developing electronics industry, it has become increasingly necessary to explore materials that are cheap, flexible and versatile which have led to significant research efforts towards organic molecular thin films. Organic molecules are unique compared to their inorganic atomic counterparts as their properties can be tuned drastically through chemical functionalization, offering versatility, though their extended shape and weak intermolecular interactions bring significant challenges to the control of both the growth and the electronic structures of molecular thin films. In this paper, we will review the self-assembly process and how to establish long-range ordered organic molecular thin films. We will also discuss how the electronic structures of thin films are impacted by the molecule's local electrostatic environment and its interaction with the substrate, within the context of controlling interfacial energy level alignment between organic semiconductors and electrodes in electronic devices.

Interfacial charge transfer enhancement via formation of binary molecular assemblies on electronically corrugated boron nitride

Using scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy (STM/STS) in conjunction with finite element simulation, we investigate the interfacial behaviors in single-component zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and hexadecafluorinated zinc phthalocyanine (F16ZnPc) molecular overlayers as well as their 1 : 1 mixed-phase superstructures on h-BN/Cu(111). We show that the formation of the binary molecular superstructure drastically increases the charge transfer between F16ZnPc molecules and the substrate, which is attributed to the greater electrostatic stability of the binary assembly compared to that of the pure phase. This study highlights the significant complication in the design of donor-acceptor molecular thin films as the presence of the substrate, even a weakly interacting one, such as h-BN/metal, can still perturb the intermolecular charge transfer and thereby the physical behaviors of the hybrid system via interfacial processes.

Energy level alignment at organic/inorganic semiconductor heterojunctions: Fermi level pinning at the molecular interlayer with a reduced energy gap

A lying (L) molecular interlayer between ZnO and standing (S) sexiphenyl molecules leads to “concealed” Fermi level pinning.

Interfacial Molecular Packing Determines Exciton Dynamics in Molecular Heterostructures: The Case of Pentacene-Perfluoropentacene

The great majority of electronic and optoelectronic devices depend on interfaces between p-type and n-type semiconductors. Finding matching donor-acceptor systems in molecular semiconductors remains a challenging endeavor because structurally compatible molecules may not necessarily be suitable with respect to their optical and electronic properties, and the large exciton binding energy in these materials may favor bound electron-hole pairs rather than free carriers or charge transfer at an interface. Regardless, interfacial charge-transfer exciton states are commonly considered as an intermediate step to achieve exciton dissociation. The formation efficiency and decay dynamics of such states will strongly depend on the molecular makeup of the interface, especially the relative alignment of donor and acceptor molecules. Structurally well-defined pentacene-perfluoropentacene heterostructures of different molecular orientations are virtually ideal model systems to study the interrelation between molecular packing motifs at the interface and their electronic properties. Comparing the emission dynamics of the heterosystems and the corresponding unitary films enables accurate assignment of every observable emission signal in the heterosystems. These heterosystems feature two characteristic interface-specific luminescence channels at around 1.4 and 1.5 eV that are not observed in the unitary samples. Their emission strength strongly depends on the molecular alignment of the respective donor and acceptor molecules, emphasizing the importance of structural control for device construction.

Electronic Properties of a 1D Intrinsic/p-Doped Heterojunction in a 2D Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Semiconductor

Two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors offer a convenient platform to study 2D physics, for example, to understand doping in an atomically thin semiconductor. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication and unravel the electronic properties of a lateral doped/intrinsic heterojunction in a single-layer (SL) tungsten diselenide (WSe₂), a prototype semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD), partially covered with a molecular acceptor layer, on a graphite substrate. With combined experiments and theoretical modeling, we reveal the fundamental acceptor-induced p-doping mechanism for SL-WSe₂. At the 1D border between the doped and undoped SL-WSe₂ regions, we observe band bending and explain it by Thomas-Fermi screening. Using atomically resolved scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, the screening length is determined to be in the few nanometer range, and we assess the carrier density of intrinsic SL-WSe₂. These findings are of fundamental and technological importance for understanding and employing surface doping, for example, in designing lateral organic TMD heterostructures for future devices.

Charge Transfer and Orbital Level Alignment at Inorganic/Organic Interfaces: The Role of Dielectric Interlayers

It is becoming accepted that ultrathin dielectric layers on metals are not merely passive decoupling layers, but can actively influence orbital energy level alignment and charge transfer at interfaces. As such, they can be important in applications ranging from catalysis to organic electronics. However, the details at the molecular level are still under debate. In this study, we present a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of charge transfer promoted by a dielectric interlayer with a comparative study of pentacene adsorbed on Ag(001) with and without an ultrathin MgO interlayer. Using scanning tunneling microscopy and photoemission tomography supported by density functional theory, we are able to identify the orbitals involved and quantify the degree of charge transfer in both cases. Fractional charge transfer occurs for pentacene adsorbed on Ag(001), while the presence of the ultrathin MgO interlayer promotes integer charge transfer with the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital transforming into a singly occupied and singly unoccupied state separated by a large gap around the Fermi energy. Our experimental approach allows a direct access to the individual factors governing the energy level alignment and charge-transfer processes for molecular adsorbates on inorganic substrates.

Energy level alignment at planar organic heterojunctions: influence of contact doping and molecular orientation

Planar organic heterojunctions are widely used in photovoltaic cells, light-emitting diodes, and bilayer field-effect transistors. The energy level alignment in the devices plays an important role in obtaining the aspired gap arrangement. Additionally, the π-orbital overlap between the involved molecules defines e.g. the charge-separation efficiency in solar cells due to charge-transfer effects. To account for both aspects, direct/inverse photoemission spectroscopy and near edge x-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy were used to determine the energy level landscape and the molecular orientation at prototypical planar organic heterojunctions. The combined experimental approach results in a comprehensive model for the electronic and morphological characteristics of the interface between the two investigated molecular semiconductors. Following an introduction on heterojunctions used in devices and on energy levels of organic materials, the energy level alignment of planar organic heterojunctions will be discussed. The observed energy landscape is always determined by the individual arrangement between the energy levels of the molecules and the work function of the electrode. This might result in contact doping due to Fermi level pinning at the electrode for donor/acceptor heterojunctions, which also improves the solar cell efficiency. This pinning behaviour can be observed across an unpinned interlayer and results in charge accumulation at the donor/acceptor interface, depending on the transport levels of the respective organic semiconductors. Moreover, molecular orientation will affect the energy levels because of the anisotropy in ionisation energy and electron affinity and is influenced by the structural compatibility of the involved molecules at the heterojunction. High structural compatibility leads to π-orbital stacking between different molecules at a heterojunction, which is of additional interest for photovoltaic active interfaces and for ground-state charge-transfer.

Electrostatic model of the energy-bending within organic semiconductors: experiment and simulation

The interfacial properties between electrodes and the various organic layers that comprise an organic electronic device are of direct relevance in understanding charge injection, extraction and generation. The energy levels and energy-bending of three interfaces; indium tin oxide (ITO)/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (

PEDOT

PSS), ITO/poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) and

PEDOT

PSS/PVK were measured using ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). By decoupling the vacuum shift and energy-bending, the energy-bending at these interfaces can be simulated using an electrostatic model that takes into account the energetic disorder of the polymers. The model is further extended to include blended mixtures of semiconductors at differing concentrations and it was found that a very good agreement exists between the experiment and theory for all interfaces. This suggests that the electrostatic model can be used to describe energy-bending at the interface between any organic semiconductors. Further investigation into the effect of the Gaussian density of states width on energy-bending is warranted.

Organic heterojunctions: Contact-induced molecular reorientation, interface states, and charge re-distribution

We reveal the rather complex interplay of contact-induced re-orientation and interfacial electronic structure - in the presence of Fermi-level pinning - at prototypical molecular heterojunctions comprising copper phthalocyanine (H16CuPc) and its perfluorinated analogue (F16CuPc), by employing ultraviolet photoelectron and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. For both layer sequences, we find that Fermi-level (EF) pinning of the first layer on the conductive polymer substrate modifies the work function encountered by the second layer such that it also becomes EF-pinned, however, at the interface towards the first molecular layer. This results in a charge transfer accompanied by a sheet charge density at the organic/organic interface. While molecules in the bulk of the films exhibit upright orientation, contact formation at the heterojunction results in an interfacial bilayer with lying and co-facial orientation. This interfacial layer is not EF-pinned, but provides for an additional density of states at the interface that is not present in the bulk. With reliable knowledge of the organic heterojunction's electronic structure we can explain the poor performance of these in photovoltaic cells as well as their valuable function as charge generation layer in electronic devices.

Energy-level alignment at organic heterointerfaces

Today's champion organic (opto-)electronic devices comprise an ever-increasing number of different organic-semiconductor layers. The functionality of these complex heterostructures largely derives from the relative alignment of the frontier molecular-orbital energies in each layer with respect to those in all others. Despite the technological relevance of the energy-level alignment at organic heterointerfaces, and despite continued scientific interest, a reliable model that can quantitatively predict the full range of phenomena observed at such interfaces is notably absent. We identify the limitations of previous attempts to formulate such a model and highlight inconsistencies in the interpretation of the experimental data they were based on. We then develop a theoretical framework, which we demonstrate to accurately reproduce experiment. Applying this theory, a comprehensive overview of all possible energy-level alignment scenarios that can be encountered at organic heterojunctions is finally given. These results will help focus future efforts on developing functional organic interfaces for superior device performance.

Quantum Chemical Insight into the LiF Interlayer Effects in Organic Electronics: Reactions between Al Atom and LiF Clusters

It is well known that the aluminum cathode performs dramatically better when a thin lithium fluoride (LiF) layer inserted in organic electronic devices. The doping effect induced by the librated Li atom via the chemical reactions producing AlF3 as byproduct was previously proposed as one of possible mechanisms. However, the underlying mechanism discussion is quite complicated and not fully understood so far, although the LiF interlayer is widely used. In this paper, we perform theoretical calculations to consider the reactions between an aluminum atom and distinct LiF clusters. The reaction pathways of the Al-(LiF)n (n = 2, 4, 16) systems were discovered and the energetics were theoretically evaluated. The release of Li atom and the formation of AlF3 were found in two different chemical reaction routes. The undissociated Al-(LiF)n systems have chances to change to some structures with loosely bound electrons. Our findings about the interacted Al-(LiF)n systems reveal new insights into the LiF interlayer effects in organic electronics applications.

Integer versus Fractional Charge Transfer at Metal(/Insulator)/Organic Interfaces: Cu(/NaCl)/TCNE

Semilocal and hybrid density functional theory was used to study the charge transfer and the energy-level alignment at a representative interface between an extended metal substrate and an organic adsorbate layer. Upon suppressing electronic coupling between the adsorbate and the substrate by inserting thin, insulating layers of NaCl, the hybrid functional localizes charge. The laterally inhomogeneous charge distribution resulting from this spontaneous breaking of translational symmetry is reflected in observables such as the molecular geometry, the valence and core density of states, and the evolution of the work function with molecular coverage, which we discuss for different growth modes. We found that the amount of charge transfer is determined, to a significant extent, by the ratio of the lateral spacing of the molecules and their distance to the metal. Therefore, charge transfer does not only depend on the electronic structure of the individual components but, just as importantly, on the interface geometry.

Quantifying the Extent of Contact Doping at the Interface between High Work Function Electrical Contacts and Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)

We demonstrate new approaches to the characterization of oxidized regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) that results from electronic equilibration with device-relevant high work function electrical contacts using high-resolution X-ray (XPS) and ultraviolet (UPS) photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). Careful interpretation of photoemission signals from thiophene sulfur atoms in thin (ca. 20 nm or less) P3HT films provides the ability to uniquely elucidate the products of charge transfer between the polymer and the electrical contact, which is a result of Fermi-level equilibration between the two materials. By comparing high-resolution S 2p core-level spectra to electrochemically oxidized P3HT standards, the extent of the contact doping reaction is quantified, where one in every six thiophene units (ca. 20%) in the first monolayer is oxidized. Finally, angle-resolved XPS of both pure P3HT and its blends with phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) confirms that oxidized P3HT species exist near contacts with work functions greater than ca. 4 eV, providing a means to characterize the interface and "bulk" region of the organic semiconductor in a single film.

Efficient light emission from inorganic and organic semiconductor hybrid structures by energy-level tuning

The fundamental limits of inorganic semiconductors for light emitting applications, such as holographic displays, biomedical imaging and ultrafast data processing and communication, might be overcome by hybridization with their organic counterparts, which feature enhanced frequency response and colour range. Innovative hybrid inorganic/organic structures exploit efficient electrical injection and high excitation density of inorganic semiconductors and subsequent energy transfer to the organic semiconductor, provided that the radiative emission yield is high. An inherent obstacle to that end is the unfavourable energy level offset at hybrid inorganic/organic structures, which rather facilitates charge transfer that quenches light emission. Here, we introduce a technologically relevant method to optimize the hybrid structure's energy levels, here comprising ZnO and a tailored ladder-type oligophenylene. The ZnO work function is substantially lowered with an organometallic donor monolayer, aligning the frontier levels of the inorganic and organic semiconductors. This increases the hybrid structure's radiative emission yield sevenfold, validating the relevance of our approach.

An approach for an advanced anode interfacial layer with electron-blocking ability to achieve high-efficiency organic photovoltaics

The interfacial properties of PEDOT:PSS, pristine r-GO, and r-GO with sulfonic acid (SR-GO) in organic photovoltaic are investigated to elucidate electron-blocking property of PEDOT:PSS anode interfacial layer (AIL), and to explore the possibility of r-GO as electron-blocking layers. The SR-GO results in an optimized power conversion efficiency of 7.54% for PTB7-th:PC71BM and 5.64% for P3HT:IC61BA systems. By combining analyses of capacitance-voltage and photovoltaic-parameters dependence on light intensity, it is found that recombination process at SR-GO/active film is minimized. In contrast, the devices using r-GO without sulfonic acid show trap-assisted recombination. The enhanced electron-blocking properties in PEDOT:PSS and SR-GO AILs can be attributed to surface dipoles at AIL/acceptor. Thus, for electron-blocking, the AIL/acceptor interface should be importantly considered in OPVs. Also, by simply introducing sulfonic acid unit on r-GO, excellent contact selectivity can be realized in OPVs.

Organic semiconductor density of states controls the energy level alignment at electrode interfaces

Minimizing charge carrier injection barriers and extraction losses at interfaces between organic semiconductors and metallic electrodes is critical for optimizing the performance of organic (opto-) electronic devices. Here, we implement a detailed electrostatic model, capable of reproducing the alignment between the electrode Fermi energy and the transport states in the organic semiconductor both qualitatively and quantitatively. Covering the full phenomenological range of interfacial energy level alignment regimes within a single, consistent framework and continuously connecting the limiting cases described by previously proposed models allows us to resolve conflicting views in the literature. Our results highlight the density of states in the organic semiconductor as a key factor. Its shape and, in particular, the energy distribution of electronic states tailing into the fundamental gap is found to determine both the minimum value of practically achievable injection barriers as well as their spatial profile, ranging from abrupt interface dipoles to extended band-bending regions.

Understanding and being able to predict alignment between the electrode Fermi energy and the transport states in the organic semiconductor is important. Here, the authors report an electrostatic model, capable of reproducing the full range of interfacial energy level alignment regimes.