Non-Lignin Constructing the Gas-Solid Interface for Enhancing the Photothermal Catalytic Water Vapor Splitting

A photothermal-photocatalytic layered aerogel for harvesting water and hydrogen from seawater

Photocatalytic hydrogen production from seawater holds potential to decrease the use of fresh or pre-treated water. However, direct photocatalytic splitting of seawater currently encounters challenges such as corrosion of catalyst and unsatisfied stability. To address these issues, we have integrated seawater desalination with photocatalytic water vapor splitting for in-situ hydrogen production, while also obtaining freshwater. This approach avoids direct contact between photocatalytic materials and seawater solution, effectively mitigating corrosion and enhancing hydrogen production performance. Based on this design, we constructed a layered structure of photothermal-photocatalytic aerogel material via in-situ synthesis method and designed corresponding device for freshwater-hydrogen coproduction, demonstrating notable hydrogen production rate of 17.94 mmol m-2 h-1 with solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 0.12 ± 0.02 % and freshwater production rate of 0.92 kg m-2 h-1. This work demonstrates significant practical value in photothermal-photocatalysis field, potentially addressing the problem of energy and water scarcity in off-grid region.

Immobilization of Covalent Triazine Framework into Hydrogels for Photothermal-Promoted Gas-Solid Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production

Organic photocatalysts generally suffer from insufficient near-infrared light absorption and undesirable photogenerated charge transport properties, resulting in unfavorable hydrogen evolution performance from water splitting. Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is also known to be significantly influenced by the interfacial charge and mass transfer in a catalyst/H2O biphase system. Herein, for the first time, a highly stable and floating hydrogen-water cogeneration hybrid hydrogel that utilizes photothermal-induced interface microenvironment variation to accelerate sluggish photocatalytic water splitting reaction is reported. Supported by solar-powered interfacial evaporation and efficient vapor generation, the rationally designed hydrogel effectively transforms the conventional liquid-solid interface into a gas-solid photocatalytic interface. The presence of gas-liquid coexistence state offers a disordered and loose hydrogen-bond network while preserving the proton transfer channel, greatly reducing reaction activation energy and interfacial energy barriers. The improved heat and mass transfer together with optimized charge transfer pathways suppress electron-hole recombination, the integrated photothermal-coupled solar photocatalytic hydrogel exhibits excellent operational stability and self-adaptive rotation in seawater, mitigating salt accumulation and achieving an exceptional vapor generation rate of 4.71 kg m-2 h-1 and a hydrogen-evolving rate of 1961.25 µmol g-1 h-1 under one sun illumination.

Nature-Inspired Nanoarray Catalyst toward Balanced Heat and Mass Transport in Photothermal Catalysis

Photothermal catalysis represents a clean, efficient, and sustainable approach to harnessing solar energy to drive chemical reactions. However, the inherent trade-off between mass and heat transport efficiencies poses significant challenges to its applicability. Herein, a nature-inspired hollow silica nanocone array catalyst (HSNCA/Co) is developed to address this limitation by enhancing the heat management and sunlight-absorptive ability, while maintaining the exposure of active sites. The nanocone array structure creates dual-flow-rate regions that enable the multidimensional optimization of thermal management and simultaneous mitigation of all three primary heat dissipation pathways. Moreover, the dense silica array enhances light trapping and plasmon coupling efficacy, achieving nearly 99% broadband absorption. In a CO2 hydrogenation model reaction, this system achieved a CO2 conversion rate of 4427.2 mmol gCo-1 h-1 under intense illumination, achieving one of the highest reported performances among cobalt-based catalysts. This study emphasizes the role of light-to-heat conversion in photothermal catalysis and offers a potential strategy for the design of catalytic materials.

Cu-based S-scheme photocatalysts

S-scheme heterojunctions have become a hot topic in photocatalysis. Copper (Cu) compounds are a versatile family of photocatalytic materials, including oxides (CuO, Cu2O), binary oxides (CuBi2O4, CuFe2O4), sulfides (CuxS, (1 ≤ x ≤ 2)), selenides (CuSe), phosphides (Cu3P), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), etc. These materials are characterized by narrow bandgaps, large absorption coefficients, and suitable band positions. To further increase the efficiency of photoinduced charge separation, Cu-based photocatalytic materials are widely integrated into S-scheme heterojunctions and exploited for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), CO2 reduction, H2O2 generation, N2 fixation, and pollutant degradation. This review comprehensively discusses recent progress in Cu-based S-scheme heterojunctions, and highlights their considerable potential for targeted applications in sustainable energy conversion, environmental remediation, and beyond. The fundamentals of S-scheme charge transfer, the design principles and verification tools are summarized. Then, the review describes the Cu-based photocatalytic materials, categorized according to their chemical composition, and their integration in S-scheme heterojunctions for photocatalytic applications. In particular, the implications of the S-scheme charge transfer mechanism on promoting the catalytic activity of selected systems are analyzed. Finally, current limitations and outlooks are provided to motivate future studies on developing novel and advanced Cu-based S-scheme photocatalysts with high performance and studying the underlying photocatalytic mechanisms.

Facet-dependent visible-light cleavage of lignin CC bonds over mixed-phase TiO2

Lignin, one of the most prevalent organic polymers on Earth, is predominantly produced as a byproduct in the pulp and paper industry and is frequently disposed of as waste, posing substantial environmental challenges. The carbon‑carbon (CC) bonds in lignin are notably stable, complicating catalytic activation and cleavage. This study presents a significant advancement in the visible-light-driven cleavage of lignin's recalcitrant CC bonds (specifically the β-1 type) utilizing mixed-phase TiO2 (P25) under ambient conditions. In contrast to conventional approaches that emphasize CO bond scission, the P25 catalyst achieves a 93 % conversion rate and 87 % selectivity towards benzaldehyde from 1,2-diphenylethanol without the use of noble metals or complex modifications. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations reveal that the rutile {110}/anatase {101} interface lowers the energy barrier for ·O₂- generation, corroborating experimental selectivity trends. The synergy between these facets facilitates interfacial charge transfer, generating superoxide radicals (·O₂-) as the dominant reactive species for CC activation. When applied to native lignin, β-1 and β-β bonds have been completely broken, with over 70 % of β-5 bonds also cleaved. In contrast, only 3 % of β-O-4 bonds were broken, validating scalability beyond model compounds. This work provides a solar-driven, metal-free route to valorize lignin waste, addressing both environmental and energy challenges.

Imaging electrochemically regulated water-air nanointerfaces with single-molecule fluorescence

Water-air nanointerfaces are essential components of multiphase electrochemical processes in various energy-related applications, including water electrolysis, hydrogen fuel cells, and CO2 electrochemical reduction. Deep insights into the critical properties of the interfaces are much sought after but very challenging to obtain due to their highly dynamic, transparent, and nanoscopic nature. A new approach has been proposed for constructing stable water-air nanointerfaces using FIB-fabricated Janus nanopore electrodes. The curvature of the nanointerfaces can be controlled electrochemically, ranging from positive (nanodroplets) to negative (nanoconcaves/nanobubbles) ones. The morphologies of different nanointerfaces were fully characterized with AFM. Single-molecule collision events of charged dye molecules, recorded with fluorescence imaging, were used to probe the intrinsic properties of the nanointerfaces. A unique phenomenon of charged dye rejection was discovered for isoelectric nanointerfaces. The role of surface curvature in the collision frequency was also elucidated. We believe that using this platform could be highly beneficial for deepening our understanding of the interfaces, thus guiding the rational design of various energy-related systems.

Green Syngas from Photothermal Catalytic Cellulose Steam Reforming on Ni/SiO2 Nanocatalysts: Synergy of La3+ Promotion and Ni-O Photoactivation

Replacing fossil fuels by renewable biomass enables green syngas production in an effort to achieve carbon neutrality and sustainable circular processes. Here, an inexpensive catalyst of Ni nanoparticles supported on SiO2 modified by La3+ (Ni/La0.10-S) is presented, exhibiting exceptional H2 and CO production rates (4051.4 and 2467.8 mmol gcatalyst -1 h-1, respectively) with 7.7% light-to-fuel efficiency in cellulose steam reforming (SR), merely under focused illumination. Excellent performance is mainly attributed to photothermal catalysis resulting from the strong solar absorption and high photothermal conversion by the Ni nanoparticles. The mitigation of tar and char formation significantly benefits from the H2O involvement in the reaction, which is substantially improved by La3+ addition enhancing H2O sorption. Remarkably, the illumination exerts mere photoactivation during reaction, which is primarily attributed to the pronounced activation of Ni─O bonds at the catalyst surface. Particularly, the photoactivation of the Ni-O-La moieties, in combination with O species replenishment by H2O, makes Ni/La0.10-S superior to Ni/SiO2. The synergy of La3+ promotion and Ni-O photoactivation poses a promising strategy for efficient photothermal catalytic cellulose SR to green syngas.

Bioinspired Photo-Thermal Catalytic System Using Covalent Organic Framework-Based Aerogel for Synchronous Seawater Desalination and H2O2 Production

Efficient utilization of solar energy is widely regarded as a crucial solution to addressing the energy crisis and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. Coupling photothermal and photochemical conversion can effectively improve solar energy utilization yet remains challenging. Here, inspired by the photosynthesis system in green plants, we report herein an artificial solar energy converter (ASEC) composed of light-harvesting units as solar collector and oriented ionic hydrophilic channels as reactors and transporters. Based on such architecture, the obtained ASEC (namely ASEC-NJFU-1) can efficiently realize parallel production of freshwater and H2O2 from natural seawater under natural light. The total solar energy conversion (SEC) of ASEC-NJFU-1 reaches up to 8047 kJ m-2 h-1, corresponding to production rates of freshwater and H2O2 are 3.56 kg m-2-1 h-1 and 19 mM m-2 h-1, respectively, which is a record-high value among all photothermal-photocatalytic systems reported to date. Mechanism investigation of combining spectrum and experimental studies indicated that the high SEC performance for ASEC-NJFU-1 was attributed to the presence of plant bioinspired architecture with carbon nanotubes as solar-harvestor and COF-based oriented aerogel as reactors and transporters. Our work thus establishes a novel artificial photosynthesis system for highly efficient solar energy utilization.

A 17.73 % Solar-To-Hydrogen Efficiency with Durably Active Catalyst in Stable Photovoltaic-Electrolysis Seawater System

Developing durably active catalysts to tackle harsh voltage polarization and seawater corrosion is pivotal for efficient solar-to-hydrogen (STH) conversion, yet remains a challenge. We report a durably active catalyst of NiCr-layered double hydroxide (RuldsNiCr-LDH) with highly exposed Ni-O-Ru units, in which low-loading Ru (0.32 wt %) is locked precisely at defect lattice site (Rulds) by Ni and Cr. The Cr site electron equilibrium reservoir and Cl- repulsion by intercalated CO3 2- ensure the highly durable activity of Ni-O-Ru units. The RuldsNiCr-LDH‖RuldsNiCr-LDH electrolyzer based on anion exchange membrane water electrolysis (AEM-WE) shows ultrastable seawater electrolysis at 1000 mA cm-2. Employing RuldsNiCr-LDH both as anode and cathode, a photovoltaic-electrolysis seawater system achieves a 17.73 % STH efficiency, corresponding photovoltaic-to-hydrogen (PVTH) efficiency is 72.37 %. Further, we elucidate the dynamic evolutionary mechanism involving the interfacial water dissociation-oxidation, establishing the correlation between the dynamic behavior of interfacial water with the kinetics, activity of RuldsNiCr-LDH catalytic water electrolysis. Our work is a breakthrough step for achieving economically scalable production of green hydrogen.

Construction of Full-Spectrum-Response Bi3O4Br:Er3+@Bi2O3- x S-Scheme Heterojunction With [Bi─O] Tetrahedral Sharing by Integrated Upconversion and Photothermal Effect Toward Optimized Photocatalytic Performance

Designing and optimizing photocatalysts to maximize the use of sunlight and achieve fast charge transport remains a goal of photocatalysis technology. Herein, a full-spectrum-response Bi3O4Br:Er3+@Bi2O3- x core-shell S-scheme heterojunction is designed with [Bi─O] tetrahedral sharing using upconversion (UC) functionality, photothermal effects, and interfacial engineering. The UC function of Er3+ and plasmon resonance effect of Bi2O3- x greatly improves the utilization of sunlight. The equivalent layer structure of Bi3O4Br and Bi2O3- x facilitates the construction of high-quality S-scheme heterojunction interfaces with close atomic-level contact obtained from the [Bi─O] tetrahedral sharing and the resulting Bi3O4Br:Er3+@Bi2O3- x core-shell morphology, enabled efficient charge transfer. Furthermore, localized temperature increase, induced by photothermal effects, enhanced the chemical reaction kinetics. Benefiting from the distinctive construction, the Bi3O4Br:Er3+@Bi2O3- x heterojunctions exhibit excellent performance in the photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol A that is 2.40 times and 4.98 times greater than that of Bi3O4Br:Er3+ alone under full-spectrum light irradiation and near-infrared light irradiation, respectively. This work offers an innovative perspective for the design and fabrication of full-spectrum-response S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts with efficient solar energy utilization based on high quality interfaces, UC functionality, and the photothermal effect.

Floating Photothermal Hydrogen Production

Solar-to-hydrogen (STH) is emerging as a promising approach for energy storage and conversion to contribute to carbon neutrality. The lack of efficient catalysts and sustainable reaction systems is stimulating the fast development of photothermal hydrogen production based on floating carriers to achieve unprecedented STH efficiency. This technology involves three major components: floating carriers with hierarchically porous structures, photothermal materials for solar-to-heat conversion and photocatalysts for hydrogen production. Under solar irradiation, the floating photothermal system realizes steam generation which quickly diffuses to the active site for sustainable hydrogen generation with the assistance of a hierarchically porous structure. Additionally, this technology is endowed with advantages in the high utilization of solar energy and catalyst retention, making it suitable for various scenarios, including domestic water supply, wastewater treatment, and desalination. A comprehensive overview of the photothermal hydrogen production system is present due to the economic feasibility for industrial application. The in-depth mechanism of a floating photothermal system, including the solar-to-heat effect, steam diffusion, and triple-phase interaction are highlighted by elucidating the logical relationship among buoyant carriers, photothermal materials, and catalysts for hydrogen production. Finally, the challenges and new opportunities facing current photothermal catalytic hydrogen production systems are analyzed.

Bifunctional In3+ Doping toward Defect Engineering in SrTiO3 for Solar Water Splitting

Defect engineering in SrTiO3 crystals plays a pivotal role in achieving efficient overall solar water splitting, as evidenced by the influence of Al3+ ions. However, the uneven structural relaxation caused by Al3+ ions has been overlooked, significantly affecting the defect state and catalytic activity. When an Al2O3 crucible is used, optimizing this defect engineering presents a significant challenge. In this study, we introduced In3+ into the SrTiO3 crystal to achieve favorable photocatalytic performance. Notably, In3+ stabilizes at the B sites of SrTiO3, outcompeting Al3+, demonstrating a bifunctional effect by simultaneously regulating the concentration of defect charges and mitigating the negative impact of Al3+ on structural relaxation, leading to shallow-state defects. Additionally, the incorporation of In3+ ions effectively prevents the precipitation of perovskite Sr2+. Carrier behavior studies and density functional theory (DFT) calculations provide substantial evidence of the underlying modulating mechanism. Consequently, the optimized In3+-doped SrTiO3 exhibits impressive gas evolution rates of 1.40 mmol·h-1 H2 and 0.69 mmol·h-1 O2 under full-spectrum light irradiation, corresponding to a promising apparent quantum yield (AQY) of 82.36% at 365 nm and a solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency of 0.54%. Such enhanced activity could be attributed to the effective incorporation of In3+ ions, which improves the structural stability of the perovskite SrTiO3 lattice.

Multi-Scale Hierarchical Organic Photocatalytic Platform for Self-Suspending Sacrificial Hydrogen Production from Seawater

The widespread application of photocatalysis for converting solar energy and seawater into hydrogen is generally hindered by limited catalyst activity and the lack of sustainable large-scale platforms. Here, a multi-scale hierarchical organic photocatalytic platform was developed, combining a photosensitive molecular heterojunction with a molecular-scale gradient energy level alignment and micro-nanoscale hierarchical pore structures. The ternary system facilitates efficient charge transfer and enhances photocatalytic activity compared to conventional donor-acceptor pairs. Meanwhile, the super-wetted hierarchical interfaces of the platform endow it with the ability to repeatedly capture light and self-suspend below the water surface, which simultaneously improves the light utilization efficiency, and reduces the adverse effects of salt deposition. Under a Xe lamp illumination, the hydrogen evolution rate of this organic platform utilizing a sacrificial agent can reach 165.8 mmol h-1 m-2, exceeding that of mostly inorganic systems as reported. And upon constructing a scalable system, the platform produced 80.6 ml m-2 of hydrogen from seawater within five hours at noon. More importantly, the outcomes suggest an innovative multi-scale approach that bridges disciplines, advancing the frontier of sustainable seawater hydrogen production driven by solar energy.

Photothermal Synergistic Hydrogen Production via a Fly-Ash-made Interfacial Vaporific System

Employing UV-vis spectrum for hydrogen generation and vis-IR spectrum to elevate reaction temperatures and induce phase transitions effectively enhances yield and purifies water, demonstrating a judicious strategy for solar energy utilization. This study presents an interfacial photothermal water splitting system that utilizes all-inorganic, economical industrial by-products known as fly ash cenospheres (FAC) for solar-driven hydrogen generation. In this system, the yield reaches 254.8 µmol h-1 cm-1, representing an 89% augmentation compared to that of the three-phase system. In situ experiments, combined with theoretical calculation, reveal the system's robust light absorption capacity, facilitating rapid gas separation, thus improves the solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency. Furthermore, the system demonstrates strong performance in turbid water and scalability for expansive applications, achieving a hydrogen yield exceeding 50 L h-1 m-2 from various water sources. Facilitating large-scale hydrogen production and water purification, it thereby establishing its potential as a viable solution for sustainable energy generation.

Optimization of resource recovery technologies in the disassembly of waste lithium batteries: A study on selective lithium extraction

This study focuses on optimizing resource recovery technology in the dismantling process of retired lithium batteries to mitigate environmental pollution. Addressing the challenge of significant precious metal losses in traditional hydrometallurgical recycling methods, this study employs a reductive roasting-carbonation leaching process to selectively extract lithium from cathode materials using a reducing agent. The study examines the effects of parameters such as roasting temperature, time, and reducing agent dosage on lithium leaching efficiency, and explores additional factors including carbonation leaching time, carbon dioxide flow rate, liquid-to-solid ratio, and leaching temperature in conjunction with multi-stage countercurrent leaching technology. Characterization of the roasting products and leaching process is performed using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The results demonstrate that, under conditions of a 700 °C roasting temperature, a 3-h roasting time, and a 15 % reducing agent dosage, the lithium leaching rate can achieve approximately 90 %. Following multi-stage countercurrent leaching, the lithium leaching rate exceeds 97 %, satisfying the purity requirements for battery-grade lithium carbonate. The innovation of this study is evident in its optimization of the recycling process, effectively separating and recovering cathode materials while reducing environmental pollution. This approach supports environmentally friendly waste treatment and contributes to the sustainable development of the battery industry.

Photothermal Induced Dual-Interface: Accelerating Sustainable Hydrogen Evolution from Formic Acid

Formic acid (FA), a liquid hydrogen storage carrier, can release hydrogen via photothermal catalysis, providing a clean and sustainable solution toward a carbon-neutral energy cycle. Despite recent advances in the design of efficient catalysts, the development of advanced systems with high H2 yield, stability, and durability remains challenging due to the inefficient photothermal conversion and mass transfer in the traditional liquid-solid bulk system, as well as the trade-off between hydrogen storage density and dehydrogenation rate. Here, we address these challenges by creating a photothermal-induced dual-interface characterized by high spectral absorption and low heat loss, a facile supply of FA, and vaporization of FA to minimize the energy barrier of the reaction. As a result, a record hydrogen evolution rate (200.9 mmol g-1 h-1) is achieved in a high concentration (26 M) of FA, which is about 15 times higher than the liquid-solid bulk system. In addition, it can be operated continuously for more than 192 h without additive addition and energy consumption, providing a strategy for accelerating interfacial mass transfer to improve catalytic activity, and also presents a reference for sustainable hydrogen production.

Photocatalytic overall water splitting endowed by modulation of internal and external energy fields

The pursuit of sustainable and clean energy sources has driven extensive research into the generation and use of novel energy vectors. The photocatalytic overall water splitting (POWS) reaction has been identified as a promising approach for harnessing solar energy to produce hydrogen to be used as a clean energy carrier. Materials chemistry and associated photocatalyst design are key to the further improvement of the efficiency of the POWS reaction through the optimization of charge carrier separation, migration and interfacial reaction kinetics. This review examines the latest progress in POWS, ranging from key catalyst materials to modification strategies and reaction design. Critical analysis focuses on carrier separation and promotion from the perspective of internal and external energy fields, aiming to trace the driving force behind the POWS process and explore the potential for industrial development of this technology. This review concludes by presenting perspectives on the emerging opportunities for this technology, and the challenges to be overcome by future studies.

Temperature-driven journey of dark excitons to efficient photocatalytic water splitting in β-AsP

Limited availability of photogenerated charge carriers in two-dimensional (2D) materials, due to high exciton binding energies, is a major bottleneck in achieving efficient photocatalytic water splitting (PWS). Strong excitonic effects in 2D materials demand precise attention to electron-electron correlation, electron-hole interaction and electron-phonon coupling simultaneously. In this work, we explore the temperature-dependent electronic and optical responses of an efficient photocatalyst, blue-AsP (β-AsP), by integrating electron-phonon coupling into state-of-the-art GW + BSE calculations. Interestingly, strong electron-lattice interaction at high temperature promotes photocatalytic water splitting with an increasing supply of long-lived dark excitons. This work presents an atypical observation contrary to the general assumption that only bright excitons enhance the PWS due to prominent absorption. Dark excitons, due to the low recombination rate, exhibit long-lived photogenerated electron-hole pairs with high exciton lifetime increasing with temperature up to ∼0.25 μs.

BiVO4 Film Coupling with CoAl2O4 Nanoparticles for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting Utilizing Broad Solar Spectrum through p-n Heterojunction, Photothermal, and Cocatalytic Synergism

Water oxidation is an endothermic and kinetics-sluggish reaction; the research of photoanodes with photothermal and cocatalytic properties is of great significance. Herein, BiVO4/CoAl2O4 film photoanodes were studied for solar water splitting through coupling spinel p-type CoAl2O4 nanoparticles on n-type BiVO4 films. Compared to the BiVO4 photoanode, better performance was observed on the BiVO4/CoAl2O4 photoanode during water oxidation. A photocurrent of 3.47 mA/cm2 was produced on the BiVO4/CoAl2O4 photoanode at 1.23 V vs RHE, which is two-fold to the BiVO4 photoanode (1.70 mA/cm2). Additionally, the BiVO4/CoAl2O4 photoanodes showed an acceptable stability for water oxidation. The BiVO4/CoAl2O4 photoanode being of higher water oxidation performance could be attributed to the presence of p-n heterojunction, cocatalytic, and photothermal effects. In specific, under the excitation of λ < 520 nm light, the holes produced in/on BiVO4 can be transferred to CoAl2O4 owing to the p-n heterojunctions of BiVO4/CoAl2O4. Meanwhile, the temperature on the BiVO4/CoAl2O4 photoanode rises quickly up to ∼53 °C under AM 1.5 G irradiation due to the photothermal property of CoAl2O4 through capturing the 520 < λ < 720 nm light. The temperature rising on the BiVO4/CoAl2O4 photoanode improves the cocatalytic activity of CoAl2O4 and modifies the wettability of BiVO4/CoAl2O4 for effective water oxidation.

Photothermally driven decoupling of gas evolution at the solid-liquid interface for boosted photocatalytic hydrogen production

The slow mass transfer, especially the gas evolution process at the solid-liquid interface in photocatalytic water splitting, restricts the overall efficiency of the hydrogen evolution reaction. Here, we report a novel gas-solid photocatalytic reaction system by decoupling hydrogen generation from a traditional solid-liquid interface. The success relies on annealing commercial melamine sponge (AMS) for effective photothermal conversion that leads to rapid water evaporation. The vapor flows towards the photocatalyst covering the surface of the AMS and is split by the catalyst therein. This liquid-gas/gas-solid coupling system avoids the formation of photocatalytic bubbles at the solid-liquid interface, leading to significantly improved mass transfer and conversion. Utilizing CdS nanorods anchored by highly dispersed nickel atoms/clusters as a model photocatalyst, the highest hydrogen evolution rate from water splitting reaches 686.39 μmol h-1, which is 5.31 times that of the traditional solid-liquid-gas triphase system. The solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency can be up to 2.06%. This study provides a new idea for the design and construction of efficient practical photocatalytic systems.