Hired Latinx child farm labor in North Carolina: The demand-support-control model applied to a vulnerable worker population

Understanding Latinx Child Farmworkers' Reasons for Working: A Mixed Methods Approach

Agricultural labor is extremely hazardous, yet young children are legally permitted to work on farms. This paper contextualizes and describes Latinx hired child farmworkers’ stated reasons for working. We conducted a mixed-methods study using in-depth interviews ( n = 30) and survey interviews ( n = 202) with Latinx child farmworkers aged 10 to 17 in North Carolina. Our qualitative thematic analysis identified children’s salient reasons for working, including supporting family, contextual factors that lead to farm work, and occupying summer time. Statistical analysis showed that children’s primary reasons for working included buying clothes (91.1%) and school supplies (64.7%), with few differences by gender, age, or other characteristics. The findings demonstrate that most Latinx children view farm work as a necessary but temporary experience that financially supports their families. We discuss the implications for protecting Latinx child workers by reducing their structural vulnerability in order to facilitate healthy development.

Prevalence of musculoskeletal system problems in children working in Turkey's automotive industry

OBJECTIVE

This epidemiology study was conducted to determine the musculoskeletal system problems of children working in the automotive industry and related factors affecting them in the province of Şanlıurfa, the Turkish province where the child population is the highest at 44.9%.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A cross-sectional descriptive type study of 256 children aged 7-17 years working in Şanlıurfa Evren Auto Industry Site and Birecik Fırat Auto Industry Site was carried out between April and September 2021.

RESULTS

The majority (55.9%) of the children spent most of their time afoot while working and had musculoskeletal symptoms, with a duration of more than one year. The body areas with the most symptoms were the waist, feet, and hands, respectively. These symptoms had not occurred before a child started working and were affected by the posture they worked in, and their daily working and sleep hours.

CONCLUSION

Public health nurses are in a position to ensure that tetanus vaccination of working children, employment examinations, routine health checks, and necessary personal protective equipment are available. They can also work to ensure that children work for legal periods, get paid their wages, have health insurance, receive apprenticeship training, and only start working when they reach the age of being an apprentice or apprentice candidate.

Latino Migrant Farmworker Youths' Perceptions of Access to Care in the Southeast: A Qualitative Approach

This study explored Latino Migrant Farmworker (LMFW) youths' perceptions regarding access to health care in the United States (U.S.). Twenty semi-structured audio-voice recorded interviews were conducted with LMFW youths (aged 15-20 years old) in Georgia and Florida. Thematic analysis was used to explore whether, and how, LMFW youths would seek health care in the U.S. as well as their personal views toward health care. Five distinct perceptions regarding accessing health care were delineated: (1) cultural-related views and attitudes toward health care, (2) transportation dependency, (3) English language as a barrier for communication, (4) lack of knowledge of available resources, and (5) embracing the obligation, and the necessity, of work. Some of LMFW youths' perceptions of seeking access to health care in the U.S. point to barriers related to social determinants of health. These barriers suggest the need for significant reform within the U.S. health care system to include farmworker youths' health needs and to promote cultural responsiveness among clinicians and rural health providers to better serve this vulnerable population.

Occupational Safety and Health with Technological Developments in Livestock Farms: A Literature Review

In recent decades, there have been considerable technological developments in the agriculture sector to automate manual processes for many factors, including increased production demand and in response to labor shortages/costs. We conducted a review of the literature to summarize the key advances from installing emerging technology and studies on robotics and automation to improve agricultural practices. The main objective of this review was to survey the scientific literature to identify the uses of these new technologies in agricultural practices focusing on new or reduced occupational safety risks affecting agriculture workers. We screened 3248 articles with the following criteria: (1) relevance of the title and abstract with occupational safety and health; (2) agriculture technologies/applications that were available in the United States; (3) written in English; and (4) published 2015-2020. We found 624 articles on crops and harvesting and 80 articles on livestock farming related to robotics and automated systems. Within livestock farming, most (78%) articles identified were related to dairy farms, and 56% of the articles indicated these farms were using robotics routinely. However, our review revealed gaps in how the technology has been evaluated to show the benefits or potential hazards to the safety and well-being of livestock owners/operators and workers.

Working hours, sleep, and fatigue in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector: A scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing industry (AgFF) workers often work extremely long hours during peak production seasons, resulting in sleep deprivation and fatigue. The National Occupational Research Agenda has classified fatigue as a "significant safety issue" and area of concern for many industry sectors, including AgFF. This review explores current research and practice in AgFF and proposes next steps.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping literature review to examine the extent and nature of research in this area. Article inclusion criteria included peer-reviewed journal articles written in English; published after 1989; covering AgFF workers in high-income countries; with data on working hours/schedules and sleep related to safety and health.

RESULTS

Limited research has addressed long hours and sleep deprivation among AgFF workers. We identified 8350 articles for title and abstract review. Among those, 407 underwent full-text review and 96 met all inclusion criteria (67% agriculture, 25% fishing/seafood processing, 8% forestry). The literature provided some evidence fatigue contributes to fatalities, injuries, and illnesses in AgFF. Older, new, young, foreign-born, and female workers, as well as those who work in small organizations or longer hours (40+) may be at higher risk for fatigue-related injury and illness. Few studies have developed or evaluated interventions to control risks.

DISCUSSION

Given that fatigue is a factor in injury and illness for this sector, future AgFF surveillance and research should increase efforts to capture fatigue and sleep data, directly investigate the role of long hours and nonstandard work schedules in the sector, and most importantly, create practical interventions to manage fatigue.

Impacts of Climate Change and Heat Stress on Farmworkers' Health: A Scoping Review

Due to the continuous rise of global temperatures and heatwaves worldwide as a result of climate change, concerns for the health and safety of working populations have increased. Workers in the food production chain, particularly farmworkers, are especially vulnerable to heat stress due to the strenuous nature of their work, which is performed primarily outdoors under poor working conditions. At the cross-section of climate change and farmworkers' health, a scoping review was undertaken to summarize the existing knowledge regarding the health impacts associated with climate change and heat stress, guide future research toward better understanding current and future climate change risks, and inform policies to protect the health and safety of agricultural workers. A systematic search of 5 electronic databases and gray literature websites was conducted to identify relevant literature published up until December 2021. A total of 9045 records were retrieved from the searches, of which 92 articles were included in the final review. The majority of the reviewed articles focused on heat-related illnesses (n = 57) and kidney diseases (n = 28). The risk factors identified in the reviewed studies included gender, dehydration, heat strain, wearing inappropriate clothing, workload, piece-rate payment, job decision latitude, and hot environmental conditions. On the other hand, various protective and preventive factors were identified including drinking water, changing work hours and schedule of activities, wearing appropriate clothing, reducing soda consumption, taking breaks in shaded or air-conditioned areas, and increasing electrolyte consumption in addition to improving access to medical care. This review also identified various factors that are unique to vulnerable agricultural populations, including migrant and child farmworkers. Our findings call for an urgent need to expand future research on vulnerable agricultural communities including migrant workers so as to develop effective policies and interventions that can protect these communities from the effects of heat stress.

Trauma and US Minority Children and Youth

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This paper reviews the literature on the prevalence, risk factors, and effects of traumatic experiences on the mental health outcomes of minority youth in the USA.

RECENT FINDINGS

The USA has an increasing number of children and youth from minority backgrounds. Research reveals that traumatic experiences disproportionately affect minority youth. These experiences include historical/generational trauma, immigration and acculturation stressors, natural and manmade disasters, experiences of discrimination, family violence, and community violence. The COVID-19 pandemic has also disproportionately affected minority youth resulting in illness and hospitalizations. Despite the higher incidence of trauma exposure, minority youth are less likely to access medical and mental health care. These disparities are resulting in increasing rates of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, substance use disorders, and suicide in minority youth. Recognizing and understanding the impact of trauma is critical to the healthy development and successful functioning of minority youth, and to the success of our nation.

Self-Reported Physical Demands Associated With Crops and Job Tasks Among Latinx Hired Child Farmworkers

OBJECTIVE

Physical demands of work performed by Latinx hired child farmworkers are poorly understood. This paper describes crops, tasks performed, and the most common dimensions of physical demands of work in this population.

METHODS

Survey interviews were conducted in 2017 with 202 Latinx children aged 10 to 17 years employed on North Carolina farms. Analysis focused on job characteristics for the past week and included factor analysis of an 18-item questionnaire on physical work demands.

RESULTS

The most common crops and tasks reported were topping/suckering tobacco and picking sweet potatoes or berries. Three factors (awkward postures, repetitive motion, strenuous work) accounted for 53% of the variance in physical demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Follow-up of hired child farmworkers should be undertaken to understand the long-term effects of physical work demands on their health.

Work-related injuries among Syrian refugee child workers in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon: A gender-sensitive analysis

Background

Syrian refugees in Lebanon have endured increasing hardships since the onset of the Syrian war in 2011, with many resorting to child labor. Working refugee children endure socioeconomic deprivation and harsh working conditions. This study explores the relationship between working conditions and the reporting of injuries among male and female Syrian refugee children in Lebanon and the related gender differences.

Methods and findings

A cross-sectional survey of Syrian refugee children working in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon was conducted in 2017. Face-to-face interviews with children (8 to 18 years) collected sociodemographic information and testimonies of their work experiences. Logistic regression tested the association between reporting of injuries and risk factors including school enrolment, field of work, means of transportation to work, age started working, number of working hours, multiple jobs, work pressure and hazards, and abuse. Analyses were stratified by gender.

Of the 4090 surveyed working children, the majority reported working in agriculture (75.8%). Around a third (31.4%) reported being injured at work with a higher proportion in males. The most common reported injuries were cuts and wounds (44.9%), with males showing a higher proportion for all types of injuries compared to females. Nearly one fifth of reported injuries (19.8%) required medical attention in a hospital, with males reporting higher proportions than females for most types of injuries. The study findings revealed the association of multiple risk factors with an increased odds of reporting an injury, which included working in more than one job (AOR, 1.71; CI, 1.20–2.43; p = 0.003), working under pressure (AOR, 1.64; CI, 1.36–1.97; p<0.001), the use of sharp or heavy objects (AOR, 1.88; CI, 1.58–2.24; p<0.001), and experiencing physical abuse at work (AOR, 2.46; CI, 1.97–3.08; p<0.001). The odds of reporting an injury increased with every additional hour of work per day (AOR 1.08; CI, 1.02–1.14; p = 0.006). Most of these findings persisted in the male and female stratified models, with few exceptions. Males who went to work in a pickup truck had significantly lower odds of being injured than those who walked (AOR, 0.65; CI, 0.51–0.83; p = 0.001); this finding did not reach significance for females. Having longer work hours per day was significantly linked to higher odds of injury for females (AOR, 1.07; CI, 1.02–1.12; p = 0.008); but not for males. The main limitations of this study were its cross-sectional design and the use of self-reported variables.

Conclusions

This study is the first to obtain direct testimony on work-related injuries and working conditions, exploring gender differences, among Syrian refugee children in Lebanon. Results demonstrated the association between the occurrence of injury and multiple risk factors highlighting their strenuous working conditions, with some differences detected between males and females. Many injuries can be prevented through direct safety interventions and proper implementation of child labor policies. Multidimensional interventions are essential to address the complex evolving challenges facing refugees.

Structural Vulnerability and Occupational Injury Among Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina

Children as young as ten-years-old can legally work as hired farm labor in the United States. In North Carolina, many hired children are part of the Latinx farmworker community. Agriculture is a hazardous industry, and child workers experience high rates of injury, illness, and mortality. As part of a community-based participatory research study, we draw from thirty in-depth interviews with Latinx child farmworkers aged ten to seventeen to describe their experiences of personal and observed workplace injury and close calls. Nearly all child workers had experienced or observed some form of injury, with several reporting close calls that could have resulted in severe injury or fatality. Overall, children reported a reactive approach to injury prevention and normalized pain as part of the job. Highlighting Latinx child farmworkers' structural "vulnerability, this analysis contextualizes understanding of workplace injury among this largely hidden population. We offer policy recommendations to protect and support these vulnerable workers.

Musculoskeletal injury symptoms among hired Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina

BACKGROUND

Although children 10-17 years can be hired to work in agriculture, little research has addressed possible musculoskeletal injuries. Children may be at particular risk for these injuries because of the repetitive and load bearing nature of work tasks. Existing research relies on child workers to self-report musculoskeletal injuries.

METHODS

In 2017, 202 Latinx child farmworkers ages 10-17 employed across North Carolina completed survey interviews. In 2018, 145 of these children (94 [64.8%] current farmworkers) completed a physical examination and second interview. The examination obtained findings for upper and lower extremity as well as back injuries.

RESULTS

Positive indicators for musculoskeletal symptoms were few in either current or former child farmworkers. The knee was most common site for positive indicators with 15.4% of children having at least one. Combining all anatomical sites, 29.0% of children had at least one positive indicator, with no significant difference between current and former farmworkers. Overall, boys had significantly more indicators of knee injuries than girls (21.3% vs. 4.1%), indicators of ankle injuries were found only in the youngest workers (9.5% of children 11-13 years), and significantly fewer current farmworkers had indicators of lower back injuries than former farmworkers (6.4% vs. 17.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

Expectations of injuries come from previous studies using child farmworker self-reports, adult farmworker injury rates, and sports medicine pediatric findings. Hired child farmworkers may not perform activities as repetitious and load-bearing as children in sports training or adult farmworkers. Additional research using physical examination is needed to confirm these findings.

Hired Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina: Educational Status and Experience Through a Social Justice Lens

We examine the educational experience of Latinx hired child farmworkers in North Carolina, using a social justice framework. Qualitative (n = 30) and quantitative (n = 202) data collected among children ten to seventeen years of age revealed elevated rates of grade retention and dropout status. Children reported disruption to their schooling caused by international and interstate migration and intrastate movement. Few worked during school time; nevertheless, children reported missed participation in educational enrichment opportunities and little integration into school life. Schools often failed to accommodate language difficulties and problems caused by migration, and an atmosphere of racism prevailed. Educational programs for children in farmworker families were established during the 1960s. However, they do not meet the needs of hired child farmworkers. Policies to reduce child employment in agriculture and to meet their educational needs are necessary to ensure the education needed for future health and well-being. We discuss the applied implications of findings.

Work Safety Culture of Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina

Background

Little research has addressed the safety environment of child farmworkers. This analysis examines the work safety culture experienced by Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina.

Methods

Survey interviews were conducted in 2017 with 202 Latinx children aged 10 to 17 years employed on North Carolina farms. Analysis included measures of the behavioral, situational, and psychological elements of work safety culture.

Results

The work culture on North Carolina farms employing Latinx child farmworkers places limited value on safety. Behaviorally, many did not wear appropriate work clothing (e.g., 47.5% wore gloves, 37.1% wore boots). Situationally, few received safety training for tools (40.6%), machinery (24.3%), or pesticides (26.0%); about one-third (33.7%) had worked piece-rate; and many did not have field sanitation services available (e.g., 37.1% had water for washing, 19.8% had soap). Safety attitudes were mixed, and work safety climate was low, with 21.8% stating that their supervisor was only interested in doing the job fast and cheaply. Greater safety training, field sanitation services, and work safety climate were associated with working in western North Carolina, migrant workers, limited English fluency, and working in tomatoes. Wearing appropriate work clothing, not working piece-rate, fewer unsafe work attitudes were associated with working in eastern North Carolina, seasonal worker, speaking English, and working in tobacco.

Conclusions

This research makes it apparent that efforts are needed to improve safety culture wherever child farmworkers are employed. Current policy is not providing a safe environment for children working on farms in the United States.

“We Force Ourselves”: Productivity, Workplace Culture, and HRI Prevention in Florida’s Citrus Groves

Efforts to disseminate heat-related illness (HRI) prevention practices among Latino farmworkers represent a critical occupational safety strategy in Florida. Targeted initiatives, however, require understanding the workplace dynamics that guide agricultural safety behaviors. This article reports focus group data collected in 2018 from citrus harvesters in central Florida and provides an in-depth perspective on the workplace culture that shapes their implementation of heat safety measures. Results indicate that citrus harvesters regularly suffered HRI symptoms yet rarely reported or sought treatment for their injuries. In some cases, the risks of developing HRI were accepted as a facet of agricultural work and harvesters blamed themselves for their illnesses. Implementation of safety practices hinged less on knowledge than on the availability of water and rest breaks and the quality of employer-employee relations and exchanges. Thus, trust was a determinant of workers’ attitudes toward management that contributed to a harvesting operation’s safety climate. Results highlight the difficulties of putting into practice measures that are not rewarded by the workplace culture and suggest that the extent to which intervention strategies promote not only individual safety behaviors but organizational accountability may predict their effectiveness.

Occupational Injuries of Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina: Associations With Work Safety Culture

OBJECTIVE

This paper examines the association of occupational injuries with work safety culture among Latinx child farmworkers.

METHODS

Interviews were conducted in 2017 with 202 Latinx farmworkers aged 10 to 17 years.

RESULTS

Occupational injuries were common among the child farmworkers: for example, 66.8% reported any work injury and 45.5% reported heat-related illness. Work safety culture was inadequate; for example, most did not receive safety training, one-third reported having worked piece-rate; only a few field sanitation services were available, and perceived work safety climate was low. Work safety culture had a mixed association with occupational injuries, with safety training and a better perceived work safety climate having a direct association with occupational injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

Policy is needed to reduce child farmworker injuries. Strategies to improve the predictive value of the work safety culture model are required.

Heat-Related Illness Among Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina: A Mixed-Methods Study

Children as young as ten are legally hired for farm work. In North Carolina, many of these hired children are Latinx; they often work long hours during hot and humid summer conditions. Heat-related illness occurs along a continuum of severity ranging from heat cramps and rashes to heat exhaustion and heat stroke, which can be fatal. The literature on the negative health effects of occupational heat exposure is growing; however, few studies have examined this exposure and health outcomes among child agricultural workers. To understand Latinx child farmworkers' experiences of working in heat, we conducted in-depth interviews (n = 30). To estimate the prevalence of heat-related illness symptoms and associated factors, we conducted survey interviews (n = 165). Heat-related illness is common among these child farmworkers. While children often understand the dangers of working in heat, work organization often prevents their taking precautions. Formal workplace protections to prevent heat-related illness are limited.

"Be careful!" Perceptions of work-safety culture among hired Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina

BACKGROUND

Children as young as 10 years of age can be hired to work on farms. Many of these hired child farmworkers are Latinx. Although these children experience high rates of injury, little research has addressed work-safety perceptions among hired Latinx child farmworkers.

METHODS

For this qualitative study, we conducted in-depth interviews in North Carolina in 2016 with 30 Latinx child farmworkers, ages 10 to 17. Our analysis used the work-safety culture conceptual framework to delineate their perceptions of the psychological, behavioral, and situational elements of safety culture.

RESULTS

The child farmworkers describe a weak work-safety culture. Psychologically, they understand that their parents want them to be safe, but they observe that safety is important to only a fraction of their supervisors and coworkers. Behaviorally, they recognize many of the hazards they confront while working, but it is not clear how well they use this knowledge to mitigate these hazards or to change their behaviors to avoid these hazards. Situationally, several children note that the only safety training they receive is the imperative to "be careful." Most receive little formal training, much of the training they receive is informally provided by family members and coworkers rather than supervisors, and their training is geared more toward how to complete a task than how to complete the task safely.

CONCLUSIONS

Child farmworkers perceive that work-safety culture is of limited importance in agriculture. Regulations are needed that improve work-safety culture in agriculture, especially for those vulnerable due to minority age.