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Calmette T, Meunier H. Revisiting the mark test for mirror self-recognition. Primates 2023:10.1007/s10329-023-01065-w. [PMID: 37071255 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-023-01065-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Despite half a century of research, few species have exhibited convincing evidence of mirror self-recognition. Several methodological objections to Gallup's mark test have been raised, but empirical studies have shown that methodology does not adequately explain why most species fail to recognize themselves in mirrors. However, a potential issue was constantly overlooked: mirror ecological relevance. Although reflective surfaces in nature are horizontal, previous studies indeed used vertical mirrors. The present study revisited the mark test to address this issue in an experiment with capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella). Additionally, a new procedure based on sticker exchange was designed to maximize mark attractiveness. Subjects were first trained to exchange stickers, habituated to being head-touched, and exposed to a horizontal mirror. Then, their mirror self-recognition was tested by surreptitiously placing a sticker on their forehead before requesting them to exchange stickers. None of the monkeys removed the sticker from their forehead in the presence of the mirror. In line with previous studies, this result suggests that capuchin monkeys lack the ability to recognize themselves in mirrors. Nonetheless, this modified mark test could prove useful in future studies, including investigation of interindividual variability of mirror self-recognition in self-recognizing species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Calmette
- Centre de Primatologie, Université de Strasbourg, Niederhausbergen, France.
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, UMR 7364, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Hélène Meunier
- Centre de Primatologie, Université de Strasbourg, Niederhausbergen, France
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives, UMR 7364, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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2
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Vanhooland LC, Szabó A, Bugnyar T, Massen JJM. A comparative study of mirror self-recognition in three corvid species. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:229-248. [PMID: 36173469 PMCID: PMC9876878 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01696-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mirror self-recognition (MSR) assessed by the Mark Test has been the staple test for the study of animal self-awareness. When tested in this paradigm, corvid species return discrepant results, with only the Eurasian magpies and the Indian house crow successfully passing the test so far, whereas multiple other corvid species fail. The lack of replicability of these positive results and the large divergence in applied methodologies calls into question whether the observed differences are in fact phylogenetic or methodological, and, if so, which factors facilitate the expression of MSR in some corvids. In this study, we (1) present new results on the self-recognition abilities of common ravens, (2) replicate results of azure-winged magpies, and (3) compare the mirror responses and performances in the mark test of these two corvid species with a third corvid species: carrion crows, previously tested following the same experimental procedure. Our results show interspecies differences in the approach of and the response to the mirror during the mirror exposure phase of the experiment as well as in the subsequent mark test. However, the performances of these species in the Mark Test do not provide any evidence for their ability of self-recognition. Our results add to the ongoing discussion about the convergent evolution of MSR and we advocate for consistent methodologies and procedures in comparing this ability across species to advance this discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa-Claire Vanhooland
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Anita Szabó
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Thomas Bugnyar
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jorg J M Massen
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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4
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Endogenous cortisol correlates with performance under pressure on a working memory task in capuchin monkeys. Sci Rep 2022; 12:953. [PMID: 35046477 PMCID: PMC8770687 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04986-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans often experience striking performance deficits when their outcomes are determined by their own performance, colloquially referred to as “choking under pressure.” Physiological stress responses that have been linked to both choking and thriving are well-conserved in primates, but it is unknown whether other primates experience similar effects of pressure. Understanding whether this occurs and, if so, its physiological correlates, will help clarify the evolution and proximate causes of choking in humans. To address this, we trained capuchin monkeys on a computer game that had clearly denoted high- and low-pressure trials, then tested them on trials with the same signals of high pressure, but no difference in task difficulty. Monkeys significantly varied in whether they performed worse or better on high-pressure testing trials and performance improved as monkeys gained experience with performing under pressure. Baseline levels of cortisol were significantly negatively related to performance on high-pressure trials as compared to low-pressure trials. Taken together, this indicates that less experience with pressure may interact with long-term stress to produce choking behavior in early sessions of a task. Our results suggest that performance deficits (or improvements) under pressure are not solely due to human specific factors but are rooted in evolutionarily conserved biological factors.
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5
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Hubená P, Horký P, Slavík O. Fish self-awareness: limits of current knowledge and theoretical expectations. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:447-461. [PMID: 34655023 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01566-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Animal self-awareness is divided into three levels: bodily, social, and introspective self-awareness. Research has focused mainly on the introspection of so-called higher organisms such as mammals. Herein, we turn our attention to fish and provide opinions on their self-awareness based on a review of the scientific literature. Our specific aims are to discuss whether fish (A) could have a neural substrate supporting self-awareness and whether they display signs of (B) social and (C) introspective self-awareness. The present knowledge does not exclude the possibility that fish could have a simple neocortex or other structures that support certain higher cognitive processes, as the function of the primate cerebral cortex can be replaced by other neurological structures. Fish are known to display winner, loser, and audience effects, which could be interpreted as signs of social self-awareness. The audience effect may be explained not only by ethological cost and benefit theory but also by the concept of public self-awareness, which comes from human studies. The behavioural and neural manifestations of depression may be induced in fish under social subordination and may be viewed as certain awareness of a social status. The current findings on fish introspective self-awareness have been debated in the scientific community and, therefore, demand replication to provide more evidence. Further research is needed to verify the outlined ideas; however, the current knowledge indicates that fish are capable of certain higher cognitive processes, which raises questions and implications regarding ethics and welfare in fish-related research and husbandry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavla Hubená
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 00, Suchdol, Czech Republic.
| | - Pavel Horký
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 00, Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Slavík
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 00, Suchdol, Czech Republic
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6
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Carole P. Pictorial Competence in Primates: A Cognitive Correlate of Mirror Self-Recognition? Primates 2018. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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7
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Hecht EE, Mahovetz LM, Preuss TM, Hopkins WD. A neuroanatomical predictor of mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2017; 12:37-48. [PMID: 27803287 PMCID: PMC5390703 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsw159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to recognize one's own reflection is shared by humans and only a few other species, including chimpanzees. However, this ability is highly variable across individual chimpanzees. In humans, self-recognition involves a distributed, right-lateralized network including frontal and parietal regions involved in the production and perception of action. The superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) is a system of white matter tracts linking these frontal and parietal regions. The current study measured mirror self-recognition (MSR) and SLF anatomy in 60 chimpanzees using diffusion tensor imaging. Successful self-recognition was associated with greater rightward asymmetry in the white matter of SLFII and SLFIII, and in SLFIII's gray matter terminations in Broca's area. We observed a visible progression of SLFIII's prefrontal extension in apes that show negative, ambiguous, and compelling evidence of MSR. Notably, SLFIII's terminations in Broca's area are not right-lateralized or particularly pronounced at the population level in chimpanzees, as they are in humans. Thus, chimpanzees with more human-like behavior show more human-like SLFIII connectivity. These results suggest that self-recognition may have co-emerged with adaptations to frontoparietal circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- E E Hecht
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience.,Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - L M Mahovetz
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - T M Preuss
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center.,Center for Translational Social Neuroscience.,Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - W D Hopkins
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience.,Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center.,The Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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8
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Horowitz A. Smelling themselves: Dogs investigate their own odours longer when modified in an “olfactory mirror” test. Behav Processes 2017; 143:17-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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9
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Hirata S, Fuwa K, Myowa M. Chimpanzees recognize their own delayed self-image. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:1-9. [PMID: 28878955 PMCID: PMC5579101 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Unlike mirror self-recognition, recognizing one's own image in delayed video footage may indicate the presence of a concept of self that extends across time and space. While humans typically show this ability around 4 years of age, it is unknown whether this capacity is found in non-human animals. In this study, chimpanzees performed a modified version of the mark test to investigate whether chimpanzees could remove stickers placed on the face and head while watching live and delayed video images. The results showed that three of five chimpanzees consistently removed the mark in delayed-viewing conditions, while they removed the stickers much less frequently in control video conditions which lacked a link to their current state. These findings suggest that chimpanzees, like human children at the age of 4 years and more, can comprehend temporal dissociation in their concept of self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Hirata
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8203, Japan
| | - Kohki Fuwa
- Earth Mate Chimpanzee Next, Tamano, Okayama 706-0316, Japan
| | - Masako Myowa
- Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8317, Japan
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10
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Liu X, Liu T, Huang X. Commentary: Spontaneous expression of mirror self-recognition in monkeys after learning precise visual-proprioceptive association for mirror images. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1151. [PMID: 28744241 PMCID: PMC5504156 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Liu
- School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal UniversityNanjing, China
| | - Ting Liu
- School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal UniversityNanjing, China
| | - Xiaodan Huang
- School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal UniversityNanjing, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan UniversityGuangzhou, China
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11
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Abstract
In investigating convergent minds, we need to be sure that the things we are looking at are both minds and convergent. In determining whether a shared character state represents a convergence between two organisms, we must know the wider distribution and primitive state of that character so that we can map that character and its state transitions onto a phylogenetic tree. When we do this, some apparently primitive shared traits may prove to represent convergent losses of cognitive capacities. To avoid having to talk about the minds of plants and paramecia, we need to go beyond assessments of behaviourally defined cognition to ask questions about mind in the primary sense of the word, defined by the presence of mental events and consciousness. These phenomena depend upon the possession of brains of adequate size and centralized ontogeny and organization. They are probably limited to vertebrates. Recent discoveries suggest that consciousness is adaptively valuable as a late error-detection mechanism in the initiation of action, and point to experimental techniques for assessing its presence or absence in non-human mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Cartmill
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, 22 Bay State Road, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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12
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Ünver E, Garland A, Tabrik S, Güntürkün O. Sneaking a peek: pigeons use peripheral vision (not mirrors) to find hidden food. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:677-688. [PMID: 28397005 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1090-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A small number of species are capable of recognizing themselves in the mirror when tested with the mark-and-mirror test. This ability is often seen as evidence of self-recognition and possibly even self-awareness. Strangely, a number of species, for example monkeys, pigs and dogs, are unable to pass the mark test but can locate rewarding objects by using the reflective properties of a mirror. Thus, these species seem to understand how a visual reflection functions but cannot apply it to their own image. We tested this discrepancy in pigeons-a species that does not spontaneously pass the mark test. Indeed, we discovered that pigeons can successfully find a hidden food reward using only the reflection, suggesting that pigeons can also use and potentially understand the reflective properties of mirrors, even in the absence of self-recognition. However, tested under monocular conditions, the pigeons approached and attempted to walk through the mirror rather than approach the physical food, displaying similar behavior to patients with mirror agnosia. These findings clearly show that pigeons do not use the reflection of mirrors to locate reward, but actually see the food peripherally with their near-panoramic vision. A re-evaluation of our current understanding of mirror-mediated behavior might be necessary-especially taking more fully into account species differences in visual field. This study suggests that use of reflections in a mirrored surface as a tool may be less widespread than currently thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emre Ünver
- Faculty of Psychology, Biopsychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Alexis Garland
- Faculty of Psychology, Biopsychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sepideh Tabrik
- Faculty of Psychology, Biopsychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Onur Güntürkün
- Faculty of Psychology, Biopsychology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany.
- Wallenberg Research Centre at Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS), Stellenbosch, 7600, South Africa.
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13
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Fisher-Phelps ML, Mendoza SP, Serna S, Griffin LL, Schaefer TJ, Jarcho MR, Ragen BJ, Goetze LR, Bales KL. Laboratory simulations of mate-guarding as a component of the pair-bond in male titi monkeys, Callicebus cupreus. Am J Primatol 2016; 78:573-82. [PMID: 26375708 PMCID: PMC5657484 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Mate-guarding and territorial aggression (both intra- and inter-sexual) are behavioral components of social monogamy seen in male coppery titi monkeys (Callicebus cupreus) both in the field and in the laboratory. Methodology for studying these behaviors in captivity facilitates the translation of questions between field and laboratory. In this study, we tested whether exposure to a mirror would stimulate mate-guarding behavior in male titi monkeys, and whether this exposure was accompanied by hormonal changes. Eight males were exposed to a mirror condition (treatment) or the back of the mirror (control) for five sessions, and behavioral responses were filmed. Blood samples were taken to measure levels of cortisol, oxytocin, and vasopressin. Lipsmacks (P < 0.0001), arching (P < 0.0001), tail-lashing (P = 0.009), restraining (P = 0.015), and approaches to the female (P = 0.0002) were all higher during the mirror condition, while tail-twining tended to decline during the mirror condition (P = 0.076). Hormones did not vary by experimental treatment, but were correlated with certain behaviors during the presentation of the mirror. While social behaviors changed with mirror exposure, self-directed and mirror-guided behaviors did not, indicating a lack of self-recognition. Use of a mirror was a safe and effective means of investigating mate-guarding behavior in response to a simulated intrusion, with the added benefit of not needing another animal to serve as an intruder; and thus may be of use in providing a laboratory model for natural behavior. Especially, as it eliminates the need for a stimulus animal, it would also be of possible use in investigating responses to a simulated intruder in wild populations of titis and other pithecines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina L. Fisher-Phelps
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, 95616
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79401
| | | | - Samantha Serna
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, 95616
| | | | | | | | - Benjamin J. Ragen
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, 95616
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
| | - L. R. Goetze
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, 95616
| | - Karen L. Bales
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, 95616
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
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14
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Anderson JR, Gallup GG. Mirror self-recognition: a review and critique of attempts to promote and engineer self-recognition in primates. Primates 2015; 56:317-26. [PMID: 26341947 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-015-0488-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We review research on reactions to mirrors and self-recognition in nonhuman primates, focusing on methodological issues. Starting with the initial demonstration in chimpanzees in 1970 and subsequent attempts to extend this to other species, self-recognition in great apes is discussed with emphasis on spontaneous manifestations of mirror-guided self-exploration as well as spontaneous use of the mirror to investigate foreign marks on otherwise nonvisible body parts-the mark test. Attempts to show self-recognition in other primates are examined with particular reference to the lack of convincing examples of spontaneous mirror-guided self-exploration, and efforts to engineer positive mark test responses by modifying the test or using conditioning techniques. Despite intensive efforts to demonstrate self-recognition in other primates, we conclude that to date there is no compelling evidence that prosimians, monkeys, or lesser apes-gibbons and siamangs-are capable of mirror self-recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Letters, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan.
| | - Gordon G Gallup
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY, 12222, USA
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16
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Ma X, Jin Y, Luo B, Zhang G, Wei R, Liu D. Giant pandas failed to show mirror self-recognition. Anim Cogn 2015; 18:713-21. [PMID: 25609263 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-015-0838-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Revised: 01/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mirror self-recognition (MSR), i.e., the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror, is considered a potential index of self-recognition and the foundation of individual development. A wealth of literature on MSR is available for social animals, such as chimpanzees, Asian elephants and dolphins, yet little is known about MSR in solitary mammalian species. We aimed to evaluate whether the giant panda can recognize itself in the mirror, and whether this capacity varies with age. Thirty-four captive giant pandas (F:M = 18:16; juveniles, sub-adults and adults) were subjected to four mirror tests: covered mirror tests, open mirror tests, water mark control tests, and mark tests. The results showed that, though adult, sub-adult and juvenile pandas exposed to mirrors spent similar amounts of time in social mirror-directed behaviors (χ(2) = 0.719, P = 0.698), none of them used the mirror to touch the mark on their head, a self-directed behavior suggesting MSR. Individuals of all age groups initially displayed attacking, threatening, foot scraping and backwards walking behaviors when exposed to their self-images in the mirror. Our data indicate that, regardless of age, the giant pandas did not recognize their self-image in the mirror, but instead considered the image to be a conspecific. Our results add to the available information on mirror self-recognition in large mammals, provide new information on a solitary species, and will be useful for enclosure design and captive animal management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozan Ma
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
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17
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Chang L, Fang Q, Zhang S, Poo MM, Gong N. Mirror-induced self-directed behaviors in rhesus monkeys after visual-somatosensory training. Curr Biol 2015; 25:212-217. [PMID: 25578908 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mirror self-recognition is a hallmark of higher intelligence in humans. Most children recognize themselves in the mirror by 2 years of age. In contrast to human and some great apes, monkeys have consistently failed the standard mark test for mirror self-recognition in all previous studies. Here, we show that rhesus monkeys could acquire mirror-induced self-directed behaviors resembling mirror self-recognition following training with visual-somatosensory association. Monkeys were trained on a monkey chair in front of a mirror to touch a light spot on their faces produced by a laser light that elicited an irritant sensation. After 2-5 weeks of training, monkeys had learned to touch a face area marked by a non-irritant light spot or odorless dye in front of a mirror and by a virtual face mark on the mirroring video image on a video screen. Furthermore, in the home cage, five out of seven trained monkeys showed typical mirror-induced self-directed behaviors, such as touching the mark on the face or ear and then looking at and/or smelling their fingers, as well as spontaneously using the mirror to explore normally unseen body parts. Four control monkeys of a similar age that went through mirror habituation but had no training of visual-somatosensory association did not pass any mark tests and did not exhibit mirror-induced self-directed behaviors. These results shed light on the origin of mirror self-recognition and suggest a new approach to studying its neural mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangtang Chang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Qin Fang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Shikun Zhang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Mu-Ming Poo
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Neng Gong
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
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18
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Uchino E, Watanabe S. Self-recognition in pigeons revisited. J Exp Anal Behav 2014; 102:327-34. [PMID: 25307108 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of a self-image in a mirror is investigated using the mark test during which a mark is placed onto a point on the body that is not directly visible, and the presence or absence of self-directed behaviors is evaluated for the mirror-observing subjects. Great apes, dolphins, possibly elephants, and magpies have all passed the mark test, that is, displayed self-directed behaviors, whereas monkeys, crows, and other animals have failed the test even though they were able to use a mirror to find a not-directly-visible object. Self-directed behavior and mirror use are prerequisites of a successful mark test, and the absence of these behaviors may lead to false negative results. Epstein, Lanza, and Skinner (1981) reported self-directed behavior of pigeons in front of a mirror after explicit training of self-directed pecking and of pecking an object with the aid of a mirror, but certain other researchers could not confirm the results. The aim of the present study was to conduct the mark test with two pigeons that had received extensive training of the prerequisite behaviors. Crucial points of the training were identical topography (pecking) and the same reinforcement (food) in the prerequisite behaviors as well as sufficient training of these behaviors. After training for the prerequisite behaviors, both pigeons spontaneously integrated the learned self-directed and mirror-use behavior and displayed self-directed behavior in a mark test. This indicates that pigeons display mirror self-recognition after training of suitable ontogenetic contingency.
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19
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Suddendorf T, Butler DL. The nature of visual self-recognition. Trends Cogn Sci 2013; 17:121-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Anderson
- Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland.
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Macellini S, Ferrari PF, Bonini L, Fogassi L, Paukner A. A modified mark test for own-body recognition in pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). Anim Cogn 2010; 13:631-9. [PMID: 20148344 PMCID: PMC3638247 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-010-0313-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 01/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Classic mirror self-recognition mark tests involve familiarizing the subject with its mirror image, surreptitiously applying a mark on the subject's eyebrow, nose, or ear, and measuring self-directed behaviors toward the mark. For many non-human primate species, however, direct gaze at the face constitutes an aggressive and threatening signal. It is therefore possible that monkeys fail the mark test because they do not closely inspect their faces in a mirror and hence they have no expectations about their physical appearance. In the current study, we prevented two pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) from seeing their own faces in a mirror, and we adopted a modified version of the classic mark test in which monkeys were marked on the chest, a body region to which they normally have direct visual access but that in the current study was visible only via a mirror. Neither monkey tried to touch the mark on its chest, possibly due to a failure to understand the mirror as a reflective surface. To further the monkeys' understanding of the mirror image, we trained them to reach for food using the mirror as the only source of information. After both monkeys had learned mirror-mediated reaching, we replicated the mark test. In this latter phase of the study, only one monkey scratched the red dye on the chest once. The results are consistent with other findings suggesting that monkeys are not capable of passing a mark test and imply that face and body recognition rely on the same cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Macellini
- Dipartimento di Biologia Evolutiva e Funzionale, Università degli Studi di Parma, Via Usberti 11/A, Parma, Italy.
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Suddendorf T, Collier-Baker E. The evolution of primate visual self-recognition: evidence of absence in lesser apes. Proc Biol Sci 2009; 276:1671-7. [PMID: 19324830 PMCID: PMC2660989 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.1754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 01/12/2009] [Accepted: 01/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mirror self-recognition typically emerges in human children in the second year of life and has been documented in great apes. In contrast to monkeys, humans and great apes can use mirrors to inspect unusual marks on their body that cannot be seen directly. Here we show that lesser apes (family Hylobatidae) fail to use the mirror to find surreptitiously placed marks on their head, in spite of being strongly motivated to retrieve directly visible marks from the mirror surface itself and from their own limbs. These findings suggest that the capacity for visual self-recognition evolved in a common ancestor of all great apes after the split from the line that led to modern lesser apes approximately 18 Myr ago. They also highlight the potential of a comparative approach for identifying the neurological and genetic underpinnings of self-recognition and other higher cognitive faculties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Suddendorf
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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Anderson JR, Kuroshima H, Paukner A, Fujita K. Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) respond to video images of themselves. Anim Cogn 2009; 12:55-62. [PMID: 18574604 PMCID: PMC3639483 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-008-0170-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2007] [Revised: 06/04/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have used mirror-image stimulation in attempts to find self-recognition in monkeys. However, very few studies have presented monkeys with video images of themselves; the present study is the first to do so with capuchin monkeys. Six tufted capuchin monkeys were individually exposed to live face-on and side-on video images of themselves (experimental Phase 1). Both video screens initially elicited considerable interest. Two adult males looked preferentially at their face-on image, whereas two adult females looked preferentially at their side-on image; the latter elicited lateral movements and head-cocking. Only males showed communicative facial expressions, which were directed towards the face-on screen. In Phase 2 monkeys discriminated between real-time, face-on images and identical images delayed by 1 s, with the adult females especially preferring real-time images. In this phase both screens elicited facial expressions, shown by all monkeys. In Phase 3 there was no evidence of discrimination between previously recorded video images of self and similar images of a familiar conspecific. Although they showed no signs of explicit self-recognition, the monkeys' behaviour strongly suggests recognition of the correspondence between kinaesthetic information and external visual effects. In species such as humans and great apes, this type of self-awareness feeds into a system that gives rise to explicit self-recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Anderson
- Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK.
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