Hierarchical Self-Assembly for Nanomedicine

Stimuli-triggered Self-Assembly of Gold Nanoparticles: Recent Advances in Fabrication and Biomedical Applications

Gold nanoparticles have been widely used in engineering, material chemistry, and biomedical applications owing to their ease of synthesis and functionalization, localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), great chemical stability, excellent biocompatibility, tunable optical and electronic property. In recent years, the decoration and modification of gold nanoparticles with small molecules, ligands, surfactants, peptides, DNA/RNA, and proteins have been systematically studied. In this review, we summarize the recent approaches on stimuli-triggered self-assembly of gold nanoparticles and introduce the breakthrough of gold nanoparticles in disease diagnosis and treatment. Finally, we discuss the current challenge and future prospective of stimuli-responsive gold nanoparticles for biomedical applications.

Light-Responsive Hexagonal Assemblies of Triangular Azo Dyes

The rational design of small building block molecules and understanding their molecular assemblies are of fundamental importance in creating new stimuli-responsive organic architectures with desired shapes and functions. Based on the experimental results of light-induced conformational changes of four types of triangular azo dyes with different terminal functional groups, as well as absorption and fluorescence characteristics associated with their molecular assemblies, we report that aggregation-active emission enhancement (AIEE)-active compound (1) substituted with sterically crowded tert-butyl (t-Bu) groups showed approximately 35% light-induced molecular switching and had a strong tendency to assemble into highly stable hexagonal structures with AIEE characteristics. Their sizes were regulated from nanometer-scale hexagonal rods to micrometer-scale sticks depending on the concentration. This is in contrast to other triangular compounds with bromo (Br) and triphenylamine (TPA) substituents, which exhibited no photoisomerization and tended to form flexible fibrous structures. Moreover, non-contact exposure of the fluorescent hexagonal nanorods to ultraviolet (UV) light led to a dramatic hexagonal-to-amorphous structure transition. The resulting remarkable variations, such as in the contrast of microscopic images and fluorescence characteristics, were confirmed by various microscopic and spectroscopic measurements.

Fluidity-Guided Assembly of Au@Pt on Liposomes as a Catalase-Powered Nanomotor for Effective Cell Uptake in Cancer Cells and Plant Leaves

The fluidity of the liposomes is essential to nanoparticle-membrane interactions. We herein report a liposomal nanomotor system by controlling the self-assembly behavior of gold core-platinum shell nanoparticles (Au@Pt) on liposomes. Au@Pt can aggregate immediately on fluid-phase dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) liposomes, forming an uneven distribution. By control of the lipid phase and fluidity, either using pure 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) above its phase transition temperature or adding cholesterol as an adjuvant to DPPC lipids, we precisely control the assembly of Au@Pt on liposomes. Au@Pt maintained high catalase-like activity on the liposomal surface, promoting the decomposition of H₂O₂ and the movement of the liposomal nanomotors. Finally, we demonstrate that liposomal nanomotors are biocompatible and they can speed up the cellular uptake in mammalian HepG2 cancer cells and Nicotiana tabacum (Nb) plant leaves. This liposomal nanomotor system is expected to be further investigated in biomedicine and plant nanotechnology.

Nanoparticle cluster formation mechanisms elucidated via Markov state modeling: Attraction range effects, aggregation pathways, and counterintuitive transition rates

Nanoparticle clusters are promising candidates for developing functional materials. However, it is still a challenging task to fabricate them in a predictable and controllable way, which requires investigation of the possible mechanisms underlying cluster formation at the nanoscale. By constructing Markov state models (MSMs) at the microstate level, we find that for highly dispersed particles to form a highly aggregated cluster, there are multiple coexisting pathways, which correspond to direct aggregation, or pathways that need to pass through partially aggregated, intermediate states. Varying the range of attraction between nanoparticles is found to significantly affect pathways. As the attraction range becomes narrower, compared to direct aggregation, some pathways that need to pass through partially aggregated intermediate states become more competitive. In addition, from MSMs constructed at the macrostate level, the aggregation rate is found to be counterintuitively lower with a lower free-energy barrier, which is also discussed.

Polymer pattern-induced self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles

Functional assemblies of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) are widely studied owing to their collective electromagnetic properties and various application from nanodrugs and bioimaging. In most cases, the superstructures of NPs are prepared with the assistance of templates or external fields. Therefore, how to prepare the functional assemblies of NPs more simply remains a challenge. Here, a free-template assembly strategy for preparing the superstructures of NPs is proposed in our work. In our strategy, we design poly(glycerol monomethacrylate)-b-poly(2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate) (PGMA-b-PHPMA) coated NPs. Then, using the polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA), hydrophobic PHPMA blocks resulted in the phase separation to form the orderly patterns, which is expected to induced NPs to self-assemble into the orderly superstructures. By DPD simulations, we find that the disk, ring, composite superstructures can be obtained by regulating the graft density, verifying that our assembly strategy of NPs is feasible. Even more interesting is that NPs are also distributed in an orderly way on the surface of aggregations to form the orderly NP patterns. Besides that, the thermodynamics, dynamics, and structure details in the self-assembly process of HINPs are shown in our work, providing a new idea and elaborate physical picture for the following preparation of the superstructure of NPs.

Confined space design by nanoparticle self-assembly

Nanoparticle (NP) self-assembly has led to the fabrication of an array of functional nanoscale systems, having diverse architectures and functionalities. In this perspective, we discuss the design and application of NP suprastructures (SPs) characterized by nanoconfined compartments in their self-assembled framework, providing an overview about SP synthetic strategies reported to date and the role of their confined nanocavities in applications in several high-end fields. We also set to give our contribution towards the formation of more advanced nanocompartmentalized SPs able to work in dynamic manners, discussing the opportunities of further advances in NP self-assembly and SP research.

Polymer-guided assembly of inorganic nanoparticles

The self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles is of great importance in realizing their enormous potentials for broad applications due to the advanced collective properties of nanoparticle ensembles. Various molecular ligands (e.g., small molecules, DNAs, proteins, and polymers) have been used to assist the organization of inorganic nanoparticles into functional structures at different hierarchical levels. Among others, polymers are particularly attractive for use in nanoparticle assembly, because of the complex architectures and rich functionalities of assembled structures enabled by polymers. Polymer-guided assembly of nanoparticles has emerged as a powerful route to fabricate functional materials with desired mechanical, optical, electronic or magnetic properties for a broad range of applications such as sensing, nanomedicine, catalysis, energy storage/conversion, data storage, electronics and photonics. In this review article, we summarize recent advances in the polymer-guided self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles in both bulk thin films and solution, with an emphasis on the role of polymers in the assembly process and functions of resulting nanostructures. Precise control over the location/arrangement, interparticle interaction, and packing of inorganic nanoparticles at various scales are highlighted.

Self-Assembly of Polymer-Coated Plasmonic Nanocrystals: From Synthetic Approaches to Practical Applications

Self-assembly of plasmonic nanocrystals (PNCs) and polymers provides access to a variety of functionalized metallic-polymer building blocks and higher-order hybrid plasmonic assemblies, and thus is of considerable fundamental and practical interest. The hybrid assemblies often not only inherit individual characteristics of polymers and PNCs but also exhibit distinct photophysical and catalytic properties compared to that of a single PNC building block. The tailorable plasmonic coupling between PNCs within assemblies enables the precise control over localized surface plasmon resonance, which subsequently affords a series of light-driven or photo-activated applications, such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection, photoacoustic imaging, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy. In this review, the synthetic strategies of a library of PNC-polymer hybrid building blocks and corresponding assemblies are summarized along with the mechanisms of polymer-assisted self-assembly of PNCs and the concepts for bridging the intrinsic properties of PNC-polymer assemblies to widespread practical applications.

Dynamic and programmable morphology and size evolution via a living hierarchical self-assembly strategy

Recent advances in the preparation of shape-shifting and size-growing nanostructures are hot topics in development of nanoscience, because many intelligent functions are always relied on their shape and dimension. Here we report a tunable manipulation of sequential self-assembled transformation in situ via a hierarchical assembly strategy based on a living thiol-disulfide exchange reaction. By tailoring the external stimuli, the reactive points can be generated at the ends of initially unimolecular micelles, which subsequently drive the pre-assemblies to periodically proceed into the hierarchically micellar connection, axial growth, bending, and cyclization processes from nanoscopic assemblies to macroscopic particles. Of particular interest would be systems that acquired the shape control and size adjustment of self-assemblies after termination or reactivation of disulfide reshuffling reaction by regulating external stimuli whenever needed. Such a hierarchical strategy for self-assembled evolution is universally applicable not only for other disulfide-linked dendritic polymers but also for exploitation of biological applications.

DNA Damage and Apoptosis Induction in Cancer Cells by Chemically Engineered Thiolated Riboflavin Gold Nanoassembly

Herein we have engineered a smart nuclear targeting thiol-modified riboflavin-gold nano assembly, RfS@AuNPs, which accumulates selectively in the nucleus without any nuclear-targeting peptides (NLS/RGD) and shows photophysically in vitro DNA intercalation. A theoretical model using Molecular Dynamics has been developed to probe the mechanism of formation and stability as well as dynamics of the RfS@AuNPs in aqueous solution and within the DNA microenvironment. The RfS@AuNPs facilitate the binucleated cell formation that is reflected in the significant increase of DNA damage marker, γ-H2AX as well as the arrest of most of the HeLa cells at the pre-G1 phase indicating cell death. Moreover, a significant upregulation of apoptotic markers confirms that the cell death occurs through the apoptotic pathway. Analyses of the microarray gene expression of RfS@AuNPs treated HeLa cells show significant alterations in vital biological processes necessary for cell survival. Taken together, our study reports a unique nuclear targeting mechanism through targeting the riboflavin receptors, which are upregulated in cancer cells and induce apoptosis in the targeted cells.

Efficient Encapsulation of Fluorinated Drugs in the Confined Space of Water-Dispersible Fluorous Supraparticles

Fluorophobic-driven assemblies of gold nanomaterials were stabilized into water-dispersible fluorous supraparticles by the film-forming protein hydrophobin II. The strategy makes use of fluorous nanomaterials of different dimensions to engineer size and inner functionalization of the resulting confined space. The inner fluorous compartments allow efficient encapsulation and transport of high loadings of partially fluorinated drug molecules in water.

Bioreducible Hydrophobin-Stabilized Supraparticles for Selective Intracellular Release

One of the main hurdles in nanomedicine is the low stability of drug-nanocarrier complexes as well as the drug delivery efficiency in the region-of-interest. Here, we describe the use of the film-forming protein hydrophobin HFBII to organize dodecanethiol-protected gold nanoparticles (NPs) into well-defined supraparticles (SPs). The obtained SPs are exceptionally stable in vivo and efficiently encapsulate hydrophobic drug molecules. The HFBII film prevents massive release of the encapsulated drug, which, instead, is activated by selective SP disassembly triggered intracellularly by glutathione reduction of the protein film. As a consequence, the therapeutic efficiency of an encapsulated anticancer drug is highly enhanced (2 orders of magnitude decrease in IC₅₀). Biodistribution and pharmacokinetics studies demonstrate the high stability of the loaded SPs in the bloodstream and the selective release of the payloads once taken up in the tissues. Overall, our results provide a rationale for the development of bioreducible and multifunctional nanomedicines.

Multivalent and Photoresponsive Assembly of Dual-Cavity Baskets in Water

Large unilamellar vesicles [1]_n , composed of bolaamphiphilic baskets 1, were found to complex photoresponsive guest 3 and divalent 4 to, respectively, give stable vesicular assemblies [1₂ -3]_n and [1₂ -4₃ ]_n . With the assistance of ¹ H NMR spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering, it was deduced that [1₂ -3]_n vesicles comprise ternary [1₂ -3] organized into a curved membrane in which a pair of baskets entraps a laterally positioned dicationic 3. In the case of [1₂ -4₃ ]_n vesicles, however, the spectroscopic results suggest that three guest molecules 4 insert vertically between four baskets 1 to give pentanary [1₂ -4₃ ] packed into the membrane of [1₂ -4₃ ]_n . Importantly, nanostructured [1₂ -3]_n and [1₂ -4₃ ]_n retain rhodamine B (RhB) in their reservoir (fluorescence microscopy) and can be switched from one into another using UV light, with a disproportionate release of RhB dye. The reported complexes, organized into photoresponsive capsular materials, are rather unprecedented, demonstrating the potential of multivalency for creating functional structures of great interest in the areas of catalysis and delivery.

"Installation art"-like hierarchical self-assembly of giant polymeric elliptical platelets

This paper reports the aqueous self-assembly of giant elliptical platelets over 20 μm in axial length, from a novel polyamide. Both the self-assembly pathway and mechanism were studied using morphology and X-ray characterizations. The polymer first self-organizes into small quadrangular frustum pyramid platelets, and then these small platelets can be further installed into giant elliptical platelets through an "installation art"-like hierarchical self-assembly process driven by crystallization. The as-prepared regular giant platelets can further aggregate together into multi-horned or flower-like superstructures.

Ionic Flash NanoPrecipitation (iFNP) for the facile, one-step synthesis of inorganic-organic hybrid nanoparticles in water

Ionic Flash NanoPrecipitation (iFNP) was evaluated as a novel method for the synthesis of inorganic-organic hybrid nanomaterials and proved to be remarkably effective, fast and practical. To prove the potential of iFNP, various nanostructured GdPO₄-based materials of biomedical imaging relevance were easily prepared in a one-step, tunable and highly controlled manner using only water as solvent.

Multidimensional Mass Spectrometry of Synthetic Polymers and Advanced Materials

Multidimensional mass spectrometry interfaces a suitable ionization technique and mass analysis (MS) with fragmentation by tandem mass spectrometry (MS² ) and an orthogonal online separation method. Separation choices include liquid chromatography (LC) and ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS), in which separation takes place pre-ionization in the solution state or post-ionization in the gas phase, respectively. The MS step provides elemental composition information, while MS² exploits differences in the bond stabilities of a polymer, yielding connectivity and sequence information. LC conditions can be tuned to separate by polarity, end-group functionality, or hydrodynamic volume, whereas IMS adds selectivity by macromolecular shape and architecture. This Minireview discusses how selected combinations of the MS, MS² , LC, and IMS dimensions can be applied, together with the appropriate ionization method, to determine the constituents, structures, end groups, sequences, and architectures of a wide variety of homo- and copolymeric materials, including multicomponent blends, supramolecular assemblies, novel hybrid materials, and large cross-linked or nonionizable polymers.

Directed assembly of functionalized nanoparticles with amphiphilic diblock copolymers

We theoretically propose a simple approach to achieve soft nanoparticles with a self-patchiness nature, which are further directed to assemble into a rich variety of highly ordered superstructures.

Colloidal capsules: nano- and microcapsules with colloidal particle shells

This review provides a comprehensive overview of the synthesis strategies and the progress made so far of bringing colloidal capsules closer to technical and biomedical applications.

Main chain poly(bile acid) directed plasmonic nanospheres with amphiphilic binding pockets and photo-triggered destruction

A series of sulfide-bridged main chain poly(bile acid)s were developed and biologically sourced amphiphilic homopolymer-directed plasmonic nanospheres and their properties were investigated.