Leonurine, a potential drug for the treatment of cardiovascular system and central nervous system diseases

Targeting Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress by Natural and Chemical Compounds Ameliorates Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity: A Review

Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic that dose-dependently causes renal complications such as decreased kidney function and acute kidney injury. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is responsible for calcium homeostasis and protein folding and plays a major part in cisplatin's nephrotoxicity. The current article reviews how chemical and natural compounds modulate cisplatin-induced apoptosis, autophagy, and inflammation by inhibiting ER stress signaling pathways. The available evidence indicates that natural compounds (Achyranthes aspera water-soluble extract, morin hydrate, fucoidan, isoliquiritigenin, leonurine, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, grape seed proanthocyanidin, and ginseng polysaccharide) and chemicals (Sal003, NSC228155, TUG891, dorsomorphin (compound C), HC-030031, dexmedetomidine, and recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo)) can alleviate cisplatin nephrotoxicity by suppression of ER stress signaling pathways including IRE1α/ASK1/JNK, PERK-eIF2α-ATF4, and ATF6, as well as PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Since ER and related signaling pathways are important in cisplatin nephrotoxicity, agents that can inhibit the abovementioned signaling pathways may hold promise in alleviating this untoward adverse effect.

Assessment of the Effect of Leonurine Hydrochloride in a Mouse Model of PCOS by Gene Expression Profiling

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine disease commonly associated with metabolic disorders in females. Leonurine hydrochloride (Leo) plays an important role in regulating immunity, tumours, uterine smooth muscle, and ovarian function. However, the effect of Leo on PCOS has not been reported. Here, we used dehydroepiandrosterone to establish a mouse model of PCOS, and some mice were then treated with Leo by gavage. We found that Leo could improve the irregular oestros cycle of PCOS mice, reverse the significantly greater serum testosterone (T) and luteinising hormone (LH) levels, significantly reduce the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) level, and significantly increase the LH/FSH ratio of PCOS mice. Leo could also change the phenomenon of ovaries in PCOS mice presented with cystic follicular multiplication and a lacking corpus luteum. Transcriptome analysis identified 177 differentially expressed genes related to follicular development between the model and Leo groups. Notably, the cAMP signalling pathway, neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions, the calcium signalling pathway, the ovarian steroidogenesis pathway, and the Lhcgr, Star, Cyp11a, Hsd17b7, Camk2b, Calml4, and Phkg1 genes may be most related to improvements in hormone levels and the numbers of ovarian cystic follicles and corpora lutea in PCOS mice treated by Leo, which provides a reference for further study of the mechanism of Leo.

Effects of Leonurine on oocyte maturation and parthenogenetic embryo development in sheep

Leonurine (LEO), an alkaloid isolated from Leonurus spp., has anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects and can prevent damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). These properties suggest that it can improve the maturation rate of oocytes and developmental ability of embryos, which are key parameters in animal breeding. In this study, the effects of LEO on in vitro maturation and early embryonic development in sheep oocytes were evaluated. Among various doses examined (0, 10, 20 and 40 μM), a dose of 20 μM was optimal with respect to the oocyte maturation rate. Compared with estimates in the control group, GSH levels and mitochondrial membrane potential of sheep oocytes treated with 20 μM LEO were significantly higher, and 40 μM LEO would affect oocyte maturation. Additionally, ROS levels were significantly lower, expression levels of the antioxidant genes CAT and SOD1 were significantly higher, and there was no significant difference in GPX3 expression. The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and Caspase-3 expression were significantly reduced in the 20 μM LEO group. During early embryonic development in vitro, the cleavage rate and blastocyst rate were significantly higher in the 20 μM LEO treatment group compared to other groups. GSH levels and mitochondrial membrane potential were significantly higher, while ROS levels were significantly lower, and expression levels of the antioxidant genes CAT, GPX3 and SOD1 were significantly higher in eight-cell embryos treated with 20 μM LEO than in the control group. The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and Caspase-3 levels were significantly decreased. In summary, LEO can reduce the effect of oxidative stress, improve the oocyte maturation rate and enhance embryonic development.

Non-coding RNAs: targets for Chinese herbal medicine in treating myocardial fibrosis

Cardiovascular diseases have become the leading cause of death in urban and rural areas. Myocardial fibrosis is a common pathological manifestation at the adaptive and repair stage of cardiovascular diseases, easily predisposing to cardiac death. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), RNA molecules with no coding potential, can regulate gene expression in the occurrence and development of myocardial fibrosis. Recent studies have suggested that Chinese herbal medicine can relieve myocardial fibrosis through targeting various ncRNAs, mainly including microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). Thus, ncRNAs are novel drug targets for Chinese herbal medicine. Herein, we summarized the current understanding of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis of myocardial fibrosis, and highlighted the contribution of ncRNAs to the therapeutic effect of Chinese herbal medicine on myocardial fibrosis. Further, we discussed the future directions regarding the potential applications of ncRNA-based drug screening platform to screen drugs for myocardial fibrosis.

The inhibition of FTO attenuates the antifibrotic effect of leonurine in rat cardiac fibroblasts

BACKGROUND

Myocardial fibrosis (MF) is a common pathological condition in cardiovascular diseases that often causes severe cardiac dysfunction. MF is characterized by changes in cardiomyocytes, cardiac fibroblasts (CFs), levels of collagen (Col) -1, -3, and overdeposition of the extracellular matrix. Our previous research showed that leonurine (LE) effectively inhibits collagen synthesis and differentiation of CFs, but the mechanism is not fully elucidated. Recent evidence indicates that fat mass and obesity-associated proteins (FTO) regulates the occurrence and development of MF. This study aimed to explore the role of FTO in the antifibrotic effects of LE.

METHODS

Neonatal rat CFs were isolated, and induced using angiotensin II (Ang II) to establish a cell model of MF. Cell viability, wound healing and transwell assays were used to detect cell activity and migration ability. The protein and mRNA levels of MF-related factors were measured following stimulation with Ang II and LE under normal conditions or after FTO knockdown. The RNA methylation level was measured by dot blot assay.

RESULTS

The results showed that LE (20, 40 μM) was not toxic to normal CFs. LE reduced the proliferation, migration and collagen synthesis of Ang II-induced CFs. Further investigation showed that FTO was downregulated by Ang II stimulation, whereas LE reversed this effect. FTO knockdown facilitated the migration of CFs, upregulated the protein levels of Col-3, α-SMA and Col-1 in Ang II and LE-stimulated CFs, and enhanced the fluorescence intensity of α-SMA. Furthermore, LE reduced N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation, which was partially blocked by FTO knockdown. FTO knockdown also reduced the expression levels of p53 protein in Ang II and LE-stimulated CFs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the inhibition of FTO may attenuate the antifibrotic effect of LE in CFs, suggesting that FTO may serve as a key protein for anti-MF of LE.

Multiomics analyses of two Leonurus species illuminate leonurine biosynthesis and its evolution

The Lamiaceae family is renowned for its terpenoid-based medicinal components, but Leonurus, which has traditional medicinal uses, stands out for its alkaloid-rich composition. Leonurine, the principal active compound found in Leonurus, has demonstrated promising effects in reducing blood lipids and treating strokes. However, the biosynthetic pathway of leonurine remains largely unexplored. Here, we present the chromosome-level genome sequence assemblies of Leonurus japonicus, known for its high leonurine production, and Leonurus sibiricus, characterized by very limited leonurine production. By integrating genomics, RNA sequencing, metabolomics, and enzyme activity assay data, we constructed the leonurine biosynthesis pathway and identified the arginine decarboxylase (ADC), uridine diphosphate glucosyltransferase (UGT), and serine carboxypeptidase-like (SCPL) acyltransferase enzymes that catalyze key reactions in this pathway. Further analyses revealed that the UGT-SCPL gene cluster evolved by gene duplication in the ancestor of Leonurus and neofunctionalization of SCPL in L. japonicus, which contributed to the accumulation of leonurine specifically in L. japonicus. Collectively, our comprehensive study illuminates leonurine biosynthesis and its evolution in Leonurus.

Leonurine alleviates rheumatoid arthritis by regulating the Hippo signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that can cause joint inflammation and damage. Leonurine (LE) is an alkaloid found in Leonurus heterophyllus. It has anti-inflammatory effects.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

The molecular mechanisms by which LE acts in RA are unclear and further investigation is required.

METHODS

Mice with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), and RA-fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) isolated from them were used as in vivo and in vitro models of RA, respectively. The therapeutic effects of LE on CIA-induced joint injury were investigated by micro-computed tomography, and staining with hematoxylin and eosin and Safranin-O/Fast Green. Cell Counting Kit-8, a Transwell® chamber, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, RT-qPCR, and western blotting were used to investigate the effects of LE on RA-FLS viability, migratory capacity, inflammation, microRNA-21 (miR-21) levels, the Hippo signaling pathway, and the effects and intrinsic mechanisms of related proteins. Dual luciferase was used to investigate the binding of miR-21 to YOD1 deubiquitinase (YOD1) and yes-associated protein (YAP). Immunofluorescence was used to investigate the localization of YAP within the nucleus and cytoplasm.

RESULTS

Treatment with LE significantly inhibited joint swelling, bone damage, synovial inflammation, and proteoglycan loss in the CIA mice. It also reduced the proliferation, cell colonization, migration/invasion, and inflammation levels of RA-FLSs, and promoted miR-21 expression in vitro. The effects of LE on RA-FLSs were enhanced by an miR-21 mimic and reversed by an miR-21 inhibitor. The dual luciferase investigation confirmed that both YOD1 and YAP are direct targets of miR-21. Treatment with LE activated the Hippo signaling pathway, and promoted the downregulation and dephosphorylation of MST1 and LATS1 in RA, while inhibiting the activation of YOD1 and YAP. Regulation of the therapeutic effects of LE by miR-21 was counteracted by YOD1 overexpression, which caused the phosphorylation of YAP and prevented its nuclear ectopic position, thereby reducing LE effect on pro-proliferation-inhibiting apoptosis target genes.

CONCLUSION

LE regulates the Hippo signaling pathway through the miR-21/YOD1/YAP axis to reduce joint inflammation and bone destruction in CIA mice, thereby inhibiting the growth and inflammation of RA-FLSs. LE has potential for the treatment of RA.

Diosmetin alleviates neuropathic pain by regulating the Keap1/Nrf2/NF-κB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain, a chronic condition with a high incidence, imposes psychological burdens on both patients and society. It is urgent to improve pain management and develop new analgesic drugs. Traditional Chinese medicine has gained popularity as a method for pain relief. Diosmetin (Dio) is mainly found in Chinese herbal medicines with effective antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. There are few known mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of Dio in treating neuropathic pain. However, the complete understanding of its therapeutic effect is missing.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate Dio's therapeutic effects on neuropathic pain models and determine its possible mechanism of action. We hypothesized that Dio may activate antioxidants and reduce inflammation, inhibit the activation of Kelch-like epichlorohydrin-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and nuclear factor-k-gene binding (NF-κB), promote the metastasis of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), thus alleviating the neuropathic pain caused by spinal nerve ligation.

METHODS

Chronic nociceptive pain mouse models were established in vivo by L4 spinal nerve ligation (SNL). Different dosages of Dio (10, 50, 100 mg/kg) were intragastrically administered daily from the third day after the establishment of the SNL model. Allodynia, caused by mechanical stimuli, and hyperalgesia, caused by heat, were assessed using the paw withdrawal response frequency (PWF) and paw withdrawal latency (PWL), respectively. Cold allodynia were assessd by acetone test. RT-PCR was used to detect the content of interleukin-(IL)- 1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a. Immunofluorescence and western blotting were employed to assess the expression levels of Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule (Iba1), Keap1, Nrf2, HO-1, and NF-κB p-p65 protein.

RESULTS

Dio administration relieved SNL-induced transient mechanical and thermal allodynia in mice. The protective effect of Dio in the SNL model was associated with its anti-inflammatory and anti-glial responses in the spinal cord. Dio inhibited both inflammatory factors and macrophage activation in the DRG. Furthermore, Dio regulated the Keap1/Nrf2/NF-κB signaling pathway. HO-1 and Nrf2 were upregulated following Dio administration, which also decreased the levels of Keap1 and NF-κB p65 protein.

CONCLUSION

Mice with SNL-induced neuropathic pain were therapeutically treated with Dio. Dio may protect against pain by inhibiting inflammatory responses and improved Keap1/Nrf2/NF-κB pathway. These results highlight the potential therapeutic effect of Dio for the development of new analgesic drugs.

The eNOS-induced leonurine's new role in improving the survival of random skin flap

In reconstructive and plastic surgery, random skin flaps are commonly utilized to treat skin abnormalities produced by a variety of factors. Flap delay procedure is commonly used to reduce flap necrosis. Due to the limitations of various conditions, the traditional surgical improvement can't effectively alleviate the skin flap necrosis. And leonurine (Leo) has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we researched the mechanism underlying the influences of varied Leo concentrations on the survival rate of random skin flaps. Our results showed that after Leo treatment, tissue edema and necrosis of the flap were significantly reduced, while angiogenesis and flap perfusion were significantly increased. Through immunohistochemistry and Western blot, we proved that Leo treatment can upregulate the level of angiogenesis, while Leo treatment significantly reduced the expression levels of oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation. As a result, it can significantly improve the overall viability of the random skin flaps through the increase of angiogenesis, restriction of inflammation, attenuation of oxidative stress, and reduction of apoptosis. And this protective function was inhibited by LY294002 (a broad-spectrum inhibitor of PI3K) and L-NAME (NG- nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, a non-selective NOS inhibitor). All in all, Leo is an effective drug that can activate the eNOS via the PI3K/Akt pathway. By encouraging angiogenesis, preventing inflammation, minimizing oxidative stress, and lowering apoptosis, Leo can raise the survival rate of random skin flaps. The recommended concentration of Leo in this study was 30 mg/kg.

A literature review: mechanisms of antitumor pharmacological action of leonurine alkaloid

Leonurine refers to the desiccated aerial portion of a plant in the Labiatae family. The primary bioactive constituent of Leonurine is an alkaloid, Leonurine alkaloid (Leo), renowned for its substantial therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of gynecological disorders, in addition to its broad-spectrum antineoplastic capabilities. Over recent years, the pharmacodynamic mechanisms of Leo have garnered escalating scholarly interest. Leo exhibits its anticancer potential by means of an array of mechanisms, encompassing the inhibition of neoplastic cell proliferation, induction of both apoptosis and autophagy, and the containment of oncogenic cell invasion and migration. The key signal transduction pathways implicated in these processes include the Tumor Necrosis Factor-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand (TRAIL), the Phosphoinositide3-Kinase/Serine/Threonine Protein Kinase (PI3K/AKT), the Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3), and the Mitogen-Activated Protein/Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase (MAP/ERK). This paper commences with an exploration of the principal oncogenic cellular behaviors influenced by Leo and the associated signal transduction pathways, thereby scrutinizing the mechanisms of Leo in the antineoplastic sequence of events. The intention is to offer theoretical reinforcement for the elucidation of more profound mechanisms underpinning Leo's anticancer potential and correlating pharmaceutical development.

The p38-MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE Signaling Pathway Is Involved in Leonurus artemisia Extract-Induced Inhibition of the Proliferation of Human Bladder Cancer BFTC-905 Cells via G1/G0 Arrest and Causes Apoptosis In Vitro

Bladder cancer is a urothelial malignancy. Bladder cancer starts in the urothelial cells lining the inside of the bladder. The 5-year recurrence rate for bladder cancer ranges from 31% to 78%, and the progression rate is approximately 45%. To treat bladder cancer, intravesical drug therapy is often used. Leonurus artemisia extract (LaE) was obtained from medicinal samples of Chinese motherwort Scientific Chinese Medicine; L. artemisia has various biological effects. This study investigated the impact of LaE on human bladder cancer cells (the BFTC-905 cell line) and the molecular mechanism underlying apoptosis resulting from the activation of cell signal transduction pathways in bladder cancer cells. A cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was used to determine the effect of LaE on cell growth. The effect of LaE on migration ability was observed using a wound healing assay. The effects of LaE on the cell cycle, reactive oxygen species production, and apoptosis were investigated. Western blot analysis detected apoptosis-related and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway-related protein concentrations. At non-toxic concentrations, LaE inhibited the proliferation of BFTC-905 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) was 24.08172 µg/µL. LaE impaired the migration ability of BFTC-905 cells. LaE arrested the cell cycle in the G1 and G0 phases, increased reactive oxygen species production, and induced apoptosis. LaE increased Bax and p-ERK concentrations and decreased Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3, and p-p38 concentrations. No differences in PARP, C-PARP, vimentin, e-cadherin, p-JNK, or TNF-alpha concentrations were observed. These results suggest that LaE inhibits the proliferation of human bladder cancer cells. Moreover, the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway is involved in the inhibition of the proliferation of BFTC-905 cells.

Complex Extract of Polygonatum sibiricum and Nelumbinis semen Improves Menopause Symptoms via Regulation of Estrogen Receptor Beta in an Ovariectomized Rat Model

Menopause is a hormone-deficiency state that causes facial flushing, vaginal dryness, depression, anxiety, insomnia, obesity, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease as ovarian function decreases. Hormone-replacement therapy is mainly used to treat menopause; however, its long-term use is accompanied by side effects such as breast cancer and endometriosis. To identify the effect of a complex extract of Polygonatum sibiricum (PS) and Nelumbinis semen (NS) on improving menopause without side effects, an ovariectomized rat model was established to analyze several menopause symptoms. Compared to single extracts, the complex extract restored vaginal epithelial cell thickness and decreased serotonin concentration by increasing the estrogen receptors ERα (ESR1) and ERβ (ESR2), depending on the ratio. Although the complex extract exerted a lower weight-loss effect than the single extracts, improved blood-lipid metabolism was observed after increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and decreasing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis was alleviated by suppressing osteoclast production. Thus, by increasing only ERβ expression without regulating ERα expression in the uterus, the complex extract of PS and NS may be a natural treatment for improving menopause symptoms without side effects, such as endometriosis.

The p53/miR-29a-3p axis mediates the antifibrotic effect of leonurine on angiotensin II-stimulated rat cardiac fibroblasts

Overactivation of cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) is one of the main causes of myocardial fibrosis (MF), and inhibition of CF activation is a crucial strategy for MF therapy. A previous study by our group demonstrated that leonurine (LE) effectively inhibits collagen synthesis and myofibroblast generation originated from CFs, and eventually mitigates the progression of MF (where miR-29a-3p is likely to be a vital mediator). However, the underlying mechanisms involved in this process remain unknown. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the precise role of miR-29a-3p in LE-treated CFs, and to elucidate the pharmacological effects of LE on MF. Neonatal rat CFs were isolated and stimulated by angiotensin II (Ang II) to mimic the pathological process of MF in vitro. The results show that LE distinctly inhibits collagen synthesis, as well as the proliferation, differentiation and migration of CFs, all of which could be induced by Ang II. In addition, LE promotes apoptosis in CFs under Ang II stimulation. During this process, the down-regulated expressions of miR-29a-3p and p53 are partly restored by LE. Either knockdown of miR-29a-3p or inhibition of p53 by PFT-α (a p53 inhibitor) blocks the antifibrotic effect of LE. Notably, PFT-α suppresses miR-29a-3p levels in CFs under both normal and Ang II-treated conditions. Furthermore, ChIP analysis confirmed that p53 is bound to the promoter region of miR-29a-3p, and directly regulates its expression. Overall, our study demonstrates that LE upregulates p53 and miR-29a-3p expression, and subsequently inhibits CF overactivation, suggesting that the p53/miR-29a-3p axis may play a crucial role in mediating the antifibrotic effect of LE against MF.

Phytochemicals as potential target on thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are currently the major cause of death and morbidity on a global scale. Thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) is a marker related to metabolism, oxidation, and inflammation induced in CVDs. The overexpression of TXNIP is closely related to the occurrence and development of CVDs. Hence, TXNIP inhibition is critical for reducing the overactivation of its downstream signaling pathway and, as a result, myocardial cell damage. Due to the chemical variety of dietary phytochemicals, they have garnered increased interest for CVDs prevention and therapy. Phytochemicals are a source of medicinal compounds for a variety of conditions, which aids in the development of effective and safe TXNIP-targeting medications. The objective of this article is to find and virtual screen novel safe, effective, and economically viable TXNIP inhibitors from flavonoids, phenols, and alkaloids derived from foods and plants. The results of the docking study revealed that silibinin, rutin, luteolin, baicalin, procyanidin B2, hesperetin, icariin, and tilianin in flavonoids, polydatin, resveratrol, and salidroside in phenols, and neferine in alkaloids had the highest Vina scores, indicating that these compounds are the active chemicals on TXNIP. In particular, silibinin can be utilized as a lead chemical in the process of structural alteration. These dietary phytochemicals may aid in the discovery of lead compounds for the development of innovative TXNIP agents for the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Cardioprotective Mechanism of Leonurine against Myocardial Ischemia through a Liver–Cardiac Crosstalk Metabolomics Study

Leonurine has been shown to have excellent anti-myocardial ischemia effects. Our previous studies suggested that cardiac protection by leonurine during myocardial ischemia appeared to be inextricably linked to its regulation of the liver. At present, however, there are few mechanistic studies of leonurine and its regulation of hepatic metabolism against ischemic injury. In this study, a metabolomics approach was developed to give a global view of the metabolic profiles of the heart and liver during myocardial ischemia. Principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discrimination analysis were applied to filter differential metabolites, and a debiased sparse partial correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation of the differential metabolites between heart and liver. As a result, a total of thirty-one differential metabolites were identified, six in the myocardial tissue and twenty-five in the hepatic tissue, involving multiple metabolic pathways including glycine, serine and threonine, purine, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolic pathways. Correlation analysis revealed a net of these differential metabolites, suggesting an interaction between hepatic and myocardial metabolism. These results suggest that leonurine may reduce myocardial injury during myocardial ischemia by regulating the metabolism of glycine, serine and threonine, purine, fatty acids, and amino acids in the liver and heart.

Natural products in drug discovery and development: Synthesis and medicinal perspective of leonurine

Natural products, those molecules derived from nature, have been used by humans for thousands of years to treat ailments and diseases. More recently, these compounds have inspired chemists to use natural products as structural templates in the development of new drug molecules. One such compound is leonurine, a molecule isolated and characterized in the tissues of Herb leonuri. This molecule has received attention from scientists in recent years due to its potent anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties. More recently researchers have shown leonurine to be useful in the treatment of cardiovascular and nervous system diseases. Like other natural products such as paclitaxel and artemisinin, the historical development of leonurine as a therapeutic is very interesting. Therefore, this review provided an overview of natural product discovery, through to the development of a potential new drug. Content will summarize known plant sources, the pathway used in the synthesis of leonurine, and descriptions of leonurine’s pharmacological properties in mammalian systems.

Investigation of the protective mechanism of leonurine against acute myocardial ischemia by an integrated metabolomics and network pharmacology strategy

Background

Leonurus japonicus Houtt has an obvious efficacy on cardiovascular diseases. As the most representative component in the herb, leonurine has attracted increasing attention for its potential in myocardial ischemia. However, its protective mechanism against myocardial ischemia remains incompletely elucidated.

Objectives

The present study aimed to reveal the potential mechanism of leonurine in acute myocardial ischemia using a strategy combining metabolomics and network pharmacology.

Methods

First, a metabolomics method was proposed to identify the differential metabolites of plasma in rats. Then, network pharmacology was performed to screen candidate targets of leonurine against acute myocardial ischemia. A compound-reaction-enzyme-gene network was thus constructed with the differential metabolites and targets. Finally, molecular docking was carried out to predict the binding capability of leonurine with key targets.

Results

A total of 32 differential metabolites were identified in rat plasma, and 16 hub genes were detected through network pharmacology. According to the results of compound-reaction-enzyme-gene network and molecular docking, what was screened included six key targets (GSR, CYP2C9, BCHE, GSTP1, TGM2, and PLA2G2A) and seven differential metabolites (glycerylphosphorylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine, choline phosphate, linoleic acid, 13-HpODE, tryptophan and glutamate) with four important metabolic pathways involved: glycerophospholopid metabolism, linoleic acid metabolism, tryptophan metabolism and glutamate metabolism. Among them, glycerophospholipid and tryptophan metabolism were shown to be important, since the regulation of leonurine on these two pathways was also observed in our previous metabolomics study conducted on clinical hyperlipidemia patients.

Conclusion

This is the first study of its kind to reveal the underlying mechanism of leonurine against acute myocardial ischemia through a strategy combining metabolomics and network pharmacology, which provides a valuable reference for the research on its future application.

Leonurine Attenuates Obesity-Related Vascular Dysfunction and Inflammation

Oxidative stress in adipose tissue is a crucial pathogenic mechanism of obesity-associated cardiovascular diseases. Chronic low-grade inflammation caused by obesity increases ROS production and dysregulation of adipocytokines. Leonurine (LEO) is an active alkaloid extracted from Herba Leonuri and plays a protective role in the cardiovascular system. The present study tested whether LEO alleviates inflammation and oxidative stress, and improves vascular function in an obese mouse model. Here, we found that obesity leads to inflammation and oxidative stress in epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), as well as vascular dysfunction. LEO significantly improved inflammation and oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro. Obesity-induced vascular dysfunction was also improved by LEO as evidenced by the ameliorated vascular tone and decreased mesenteric artery fibrosis. Using mass spectrometry, we identified YTHDF1 as the direct target of LEO. Taken together, we demonstrated that LEO improves oxidative stress and vascular remodeling induced by obesity and targets YTHDF1, raising the possibility of LEO treating other obesity-related metabolic syndromes.

Ethnopharmacological Survey of Traditional Chinese Medicine Pharmacy Prescriptions for Dysmenorrhea

Chinese herbal medicines have long been used for the treatment of dysmenorrhea. The treatment experiences of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) pharmacies passed down through generations have contributed to a wealth of prescriptions for dysmenorrhea that have achieved significant therapeutic effects in countless Taiwanese women. Therefore, surveying and analyzing these prescriptions may enable us to elucidate the core medication combinations used in TCM prescriptions for dysmenorrhea. In the present study, a field investigation was conducted on various TCM pharmacies in Taiwan. A total of 96 TCM pharmacies were sampled, and 99 prescriptions for dysmenorrhea containing 77 different medicinal materials were collected. Compositae (8%) was the most common botanical source of the medicinal materials, and the predominant TCM property and flavor of the materials were warm (45%) and sweet (73%), respectively. The blood-activating and stasis-dispelling effect (23%) and the qi-tonifying effect (23%) were the most prevalent traditional effects, and the modern pharmacological effects most commonly found in the materials were anti-inflammatory (73%), antitumor (59%), and analgesic (12%) effects. Network analysis of the 77 medicinal materials used in the prescriptions, which was performed using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Inheritance Support System, yielded seven core medicinal materials and the corresponding network diagram. The seven core medicinal materials ranked in order of relative frequency of citation (RFC) were Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Dang Gui), Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort (Chuan Qiong), Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch (Di Huang), Paeonia lactiflora Pall (Bai Shao), Hedysarum polybotrys Hand.-Mazz (Hong Qi), Lycium chinense Mill (Gou Qi Zi), and Cinnamomum cassia (L.). J. Presl (Gui Zhi). A total of 58 combinations, each consisting of two to five of the seven medicinal materials and 107 association rules among the materials, were identified. This study provides a record of valuable knowledge on TCM pharmacy prescriptions for dysmenorrhea. The rich medicinal knowledge of TCM pharmacies in Taiwan is worthy of further exploration, and the results of this study can serve as a basis for future pharmacological research and the development of naturally derived medications for dysmenorrhea.

Leonurine Preconditioning Attenuates Ischemic Acute Kidney Injury in Rats by Promoting Nrf2 Nuclear Translocation and Suppressing TLR4/NF-κB Pathway

Despite the precise mechanisms for renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) are poorly understood, nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathways were considered as the important targets. Leonurine (LEO) is a special alkaloid extracted from Chinese motherwort (Leonurus japonicus Houtt), which has an anti-inflammatory effect and reduces oxidative stress. We conducted the study to explore the efficacy of LEO against I/R-induced AKI in rats and further investigated the underlying mechanisms. Ischemic renal injury was induced by temporary vascular clamping for 45 min. We have measured the levels of inflammation-related biomarkers and antioxidative stress markers. Next, Western blot analysis and Real-time PCR were performed to analyze whether the Nrf2 and TLR4/nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) pathways were involved in this process. We found that LEO pretreatment remarkably decreased serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in I/R rats and attenuated acute tubular damage. In addition, LEO markedly increased the expression of antioxidant proteins and decreased the levels of inflammatory factors. Further study revealed that LEO promoted Nrf2 into the nucleus, promoted the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO-1), and suppressed the TLR4/NF-κB signal pathway in kidney tissues of ischemic AKI rats. The study reveals that LEO has a protective effect to prevent ischemic AKI through activation of Nrf2 nuclear translocation resisting oxidative stress injury and inhibition of the TLR4/NF-κB pathway mediated inflammatory gene expression.

Combined Therapy with Traditional Chinese Medicine and Antiplatelet Drugs for Ischemic Heart Disease: Mechanism, Efficacy, and Safety

Ischemic heart disease is a significant risk factor that threatens human health, and antiplatelet drugs are routinely used to treat cases in clinical settings. Chinese medicine for promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis (PBCRBSCM) can often be combined with antiplatelet drugs to treat ischemic heart disease. PBCRBSCM can inhibit platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation; moreover, PBCRBSCM in combination with antiplatelet drugs exerts antiplatelet effects. The mechanism is related to several factors, including the inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation, improvement of the hemodynamic status and coagulation function, and correction of metabolism and inflammation. PBCRBSCM can also regulate the absorption and metabolism of conventional antiplatelet drugs and protect the gastric mucosal epithelial cells against damage induced by conventional antiplatelet drugs. Randomized controlled trials have confirmed that PBCRBSCM preparations and the active ingredients in these preparations can reduce resistance to aspirin and clopidogrel so that the combination of these drugs can exert their antiplatelet effects. In the perioperative treatment of patients with stable angina pectoris, unstable angina pectoris, and acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention therapy, preparations of the active ingredients of PBCRBSCM combined with antiplatelet drugs and other conventional Western medicine treatments have been proven effective. The efficacy and safety of such combinations have also been extensively verified. Considerable progress has been made to understand the antiplatelet mechanism of PBCRBSCM. However, most clinical studies had problems, such as limited sample size and inappropriate research design, which has limited the translational use of PBCRBSCM in antiplatelet therapy. A large-scale, multicenter, randomized controlled study with cardiovascular events as the endpoint is still to be conducted to provide evidence for the combined application of PBCRBSCM and antiplatelet drugs in the prevention and treatment of ischemic heart disease.

Standardization of Leonurus sibiricus L. aerial part and capillary electrophoresis quantitative analysis of its leonurine content

The quality parameters of Leonurus sibiricus L. aerial part crude drugs were evaluated. Fifteen crude drugs were collected from various locations throughout Thailand. The transverse section of the stem of L. sibiricus showed quadrangular character highlighted the ribs with angular collenchyma. The epidermis was uniseriate with abundant glandular trichomes distribution. Prismatic calcium oxalate prisms were found in the stem medullary parenchyma.The histological character of crude drug powder showed bordered pitted vessel, fragment of fiber, glandular trichome, prism crystal, spiral vessel, starch granule, and stomata. The loss on drying, total ash, acid-insoluble ash, and moisture contents should be not more than 8.18, 15.28, 4.04, and 8.91 g/100 g dry weight, whereas ethanol and water-soluble extractive values should be not less than 7.67, and 17.21 g/100 g of dry weight, respectively. Leonurine in the crude drugs were analyzed by capillary electrophoresis (CE) with photodiode array detector. The ethanolic extraction performed by Soxhlet apparatus yielded 18.86 ± 4.09 g/100 g dry weight. The electropherogram detected at 277 nm showed the migration time of leonurine at 6.2 min. The developed CE was found to be valid for leonurine quantification in L. sibiricus ethanolic extract. The contents of leonurine in 15 crude drugs ranged from 0.79 to 4.23 mg/g with the average of 2.38 ± 1.10 mg/g dry weight. This study established the pharmacognostic specification of L. sibiricus crude drug in Thailand with special reference to a bioactive compound, leonurine. CE was beneficial technique for the analysis of leonurine in L. sibiricus aerial parts.