1
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Tanaka N, Yamaguchi I, Yamaguchi R, Fujigaya T. Study of the electron-doping mechanism in single-walled carbon nanotubes using dimethylbenzimidazole. Faraday Discuss 2024; 250:390-399. [PMID: 37965763 DOI: 10.1039/d3fd00128h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) exhibit p-type properties in air, necessitating electron doping using n-dopants (e.g., reducing agents) for the development of SWCNT-based electronic devices. Dimethylbenzimidazole (DMBI-H) derivatives serve as effective electron dopants, not only for SWCNTs, but also for various organic semiconducting materials. However, the doping reaction is still a subject of debate. In this study, the electron-doping reactions of ortho-methoxy-substituted DMBI-H for SWCNTs were analyzed in protic and aprotic solvents in the presence and absence of dioxygen (O2). The presence of O2 was found to cause the reduction of O2 on the SWCNT surface in the protic solvent, resulting in the production of DMBI cations and water through proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) from the n-doped SWCNT and ethanol. This work elucidates the mechanism behind the air-stability of n-type SWCNTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Tanaka
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
- International Institute for Carbon Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER), Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - I Yamaguchi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
| | - R Yamaguchi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
| | - T Fujigaya
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
- International Institute for Carbon Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER), Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
- Center for Molecular Systems (CMS), Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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2
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Shaikh A, Sahoo S, Marder SR, Barlow S, Mohapatra SK. Reductive dimerization of benzothiazolium salts. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:2115-2123. [PMID: 38376182 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob01871g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Three different types of reaction products were obtained from the reduction of 2-substituted 3-methylbenzothiazolium salts using Na : Hg (1 wt%). Depending on the 2-substituents, two types of dimeric compounds were obtained: the 2-cyclohexyl-, 2-phenyl-, and 2-(p-tolyl)-substituted species are reduced to the corresponding 2,2'-bibenzo[d]thiazoles, while their 2-((p-OMe)C6H4)- and 2-((p-NMe2)C6H4)-substituted derivatives afford cis-[1,4]benzothiazino[3,2-b][1,4]benzothiazines. Furthermore, in the presence of molecular O2, new disulfide derivatives were obtained from the bibenzo[d]thiazoles. The products were obtained in a moderate to good yield, and the structures were confirmed using single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The electrochemistry and further reactivity towards different oxidants of the dimeric compounds were studied; the 2,2'-bibenzo[d]thiazoles show oxidation potentials similar to that of ferrocene and are converted back to the corresponding benzothiazolium cations by mild oxidants such as TCNQ. In contrast, the benzothiazino-benzothiazines show no oxidations in the solvent window of THF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aijaz Shaikh
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology-Indian Oil Odisha Campus, IIT Kharagpur Extension Center, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751013, India.
| | - Satyajit Sahoo
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology-Indian Oil Odisha Campus, IIT Kharagpur Extension Center, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751013, India.
| | - Seth R Marder
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
- Department of Chemistry and of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Stephen Barlow
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Swagat K Mohapatra
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology-Indian Oil Odisha Campus, IIT Kharagpur Extension Center, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751013, India.
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3
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Tang K, Brown MR, Risko C, Gish MK, Rumbles G, Pham PH, Luca OR, Barlow S, Marder SR. Beyond n-dopants for organic semiconductors: use of bibenzo[ d]imidazoles in UV-promoted dehalogenation reactions of organic halides. Beilstein J Org Chem 2023; 19:1912-1922. [PMID: 38116245 PMCID: PMC10729154 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.19.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
2,2'-Bis(4-dimethylaminophenyl)- and 2,2'-dicyclohexyl-1,1',3,3'-tetramethyl-2,2',3,3'-tetrahydro-2,2'-bibenzo[d]imidazole ((N-DMBI)2 and (Cyc-DMBI)2) are quite strong reductants with effective potentials of ca. -2 V vs ferrocenium/ferrocene, yet are relatively stable to air due to the coupling of redox and bond-breaking processes. Here, we examine their use in accomplishing electron transfer-induced bond-cleavage reactions, specifically dehalogenations. The dimers reduce halides that have reduction potentials less cathodic than ca. -2 V vs ferrocenium/ferrocene, especially under UV photoexcitation (using a 365 nm LED). In the case of benzyl halides, the products are bibenzyl derivatives, whereas aryl halides are reduced to the corresponding arenes. The potentials of the halides that can be reduced in this way, quantum-chemical calculations, and steady-state and transient absorption spectroscopy suggest that UV irradiation accelerates the reactions via cleavage of the dimers to the corresponding radical monomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kan Tang
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Megan R Brown
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Applied Energy Research (CAER), University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40506, United States
| | - Chad Risko
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Applied Energy Research (CAER), University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40506, United States
| | - Melissa K Gish
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, Golden, Colorado, 80401, United States
| | - Garry Rumbles
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, Golden, Colorado, 80401, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States,
| | - Phuc H Pham
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Oana R Luca
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Stephen Barlow
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, Golden, Colorado, 80401, United States
| | - Seth R Marder
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, Golden, Colorado, 80401, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States,
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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4
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Mohapatra SK, Al Kurdi K, Jhulki S, Bogdanov G, Bacsa J, Conte M, Timofeeva TV, Marder SR, Barlow S. Benzoimidazolium-derived dimeric and hydride n-dopants for organic electron-transport materials: impact of substitution on structures, electrochemistry, and reactivity. Beilstein J Org Chem 2023; 19:1651-1663. [PMID: 37942021 PMCID: PMC10630679 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.19.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
1,3-Dimethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzo[d]imidazoles, 1H, and 1,1',3,3'-tetramethyl-2,2',3,3'-tetrahydro-2,2'-bibenzo[d]imidazoles, 12, are of interest as n-dopants for organic electron-transport materials. Salts of 2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-4,7-dimethoxy-, 2-cyclohexyl-4,7-dimethoxy-, and 2-(5-(dimethylamino)thiophen-2-yl)benzo[d]imidazolium (1g-i+, respectively) have been synthesized and reduced with NaBH4 to 1gH, 1hH, and 1iH, and with Na:Hg to 1g2 and 1h2. Their electrochemistry and reactivity were compared to those derived from 2-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)- (1b+) and 2-cyclohexylbenzo[d]imidazolium (1e+) salts. E(1+/1•) values for 2-aryl species are less reducing than for 2-alkyl analogues, i.e., the radicals are stabilized more by aryl groups than the cations, while 4,7-dimethoxy substitution leads to more reducing E(1+/1•) values, as well as cathodic shifts in E(12•+/12) and E(1H•+/1H) values. Both the use of 3,4-dimethoxy and 2-aryl substituents accelerates the reaction of the 1H species with PC61BM. Because 2-aryl groups stabilize radicals, 1b2 and 1g2 exhibit weaker bonds than 1e2 and 1h2 and thus react with 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (VII) via a "cleavage-first" pathway, while 1e2 and 1h2 react only via "electron-transfer-first". 1h2 exhibits the most cathodic E(12•+/12) value of the dimers considered here and, therefore, reacts more rapidly than any of the other dimers with VII via "electron-transfer-first". Crystal structures show rather long central C-C bonds for 1b2 (1.5899(11) and 1.6194(8) Å) and 1h2 (1.6299(13) Å).
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Affiliation(s)
- Swagat K Mohapatra
- Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 80007, United States
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology—Indian Oil Campus, ITT Kharagpur Extension Center, Bhubaneswar 751013 Odisha, India
| | - Khaled Al Kurdi
- Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 80007, United States
| | - Samik Jhulki
- Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 80007, United States
| | - Georgii Bogdanov
- Department of Chemistry, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, New Mexico 87701, United States
| | - John Bacsa
- Crystallography Lab, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Maxwell Conte
- Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 80007, United States
| | - Tatiana V Timofeeva
- Department of Chemistry, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, New Mexico 87701, United States
| | - Seth R Marder
- Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 80007, United States
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, Golden, Colorado, 80401, United States
| | - Stephen Barlow
- Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics and School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 80007, United States
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, Golden, Colorado, 80401, United States
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5
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Nayak MK, Elvers BJ, Mandal D, Das A, Ramakrishnan R, Mote KR, Schulzke C, Yildiz CB, Jana A. Reduction of 2- H-substituted pyrrolinium cations: the carbon-carbon single bond in air stable 2,2'-bipyrrolidines as a two-electron-source. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:6698-6701. [PMID: 37183853 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc00891f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Reduction of 2-H-substituted pyrrolinium cations via initially formed secondary radicals results in either dimerisation or H-abstracted products, while the outcome depends on the N-substituents. The resultant central carbon-carbon single bond in the dimerised 2,2'-bipyrrolidine derivatives can be oxidised chemically and electrochemically. The notably air and moisture-stable dimers were subsequently utilised as a source of two electrons in various chemical transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithilesh Kumar Nayak
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad, Gopanpally, Hyderabad-500046, Telangana, India.
| | - Benedict J Elvers
- Institut für Biochemie, Universität Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Straße 4, Greifswald D-17489, Germany.
| | - Debdeep Mandal
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad, Gopanpally, Hyderabad-500046, Telangana, India.
| | - Ayan Das
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad, Gopanpally, Hyderabad-500046, Telangana, India.
| | - Raghunathan Ramakrishnan
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad, Gopanpally, Hyderabad-500046, Telangana, India.
| | - Kaustubh R Mote
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad, Gopanpally, Hyderabad-500046, Telangana, India.
| | - Carola Schulzke
- Institut für Biochemie, Universität Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Straße 4, Greifswald D-17489, Germany.
| | - Cem Burak Yildiz
- Department of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, Aksaray University, Aksaray-68100, Türkiye.
| | - Anukul Jana
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad, Gopanpally, Hyderabad-500046, Telangana, India.
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6
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Dolai R, Kumar R, Elvers BJ, Pal PK, Joseph B, Sikari R, Nayak MK, Maiti A, Singh T, Chrysochos N, Jayaraman A, Krummenacher I, Mondal J, Priyakumar UD, Braunschweig H, Yildiz CB, Schulzke C, Jana A. Carbodicarbenes and Striking Redox Transitions of their Conjugate Acids: Influence of NHC versus CAAC as Donor Substituents. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202202888. [PMID: 36129127 PMCID: PMC10100033 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202202888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Herein, a new type of carbodicarbene (CDC) comprising two different classes of carbenes is reported; NHC and CAAC as donor substituents and compare the molecular structure and coordination to Au(I)Cl to those of NHC-only and CAAC-only analogues. The conjugate acids of these three CDCs exhibit notable redox properties. Their reactions with [NO][SbF6 ] were investigated. The reduction of the conjugate acid of CAAC-only based CDC with KC8 results in the formation of hydrogen abstracted/eliminated products, which proceed through a neutral radical intermediate, detected by EPR spectroscopy. In contrast, the reduction of conjugate acids of NHC-only and NHC/CAAC based CDCs led to intermolecular reductive (reversible) carbon-carbon sigma bond formation. The resulting relatively elongated carbon-carbon sigma bonds were found to be readily oxidized. They were, thus, demonstrated to be potent reducing agents, underlining their potential utility as organic electron donors and n-dopants in organic semiconductor molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramapada Dolai
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Rahul Kumar
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Benedict J Elvers
- Institut für Biochemie, Universität Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Pradeep Kumar Pal
- International Institute of Information Technology Gachibowli, Hyderabad, 500032, India
| | - Benson Joseph
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Rina Sikari
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Mithilesh Kumar Nayak
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Avijit Maiti
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Tejender Singh
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Nicolas Chrysochos
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - Arumugam Jayaraman
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Institute for Sustainable Chemistry & Catalysis with Boron (ICB), Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ivo Krummenacher
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Institute for Sustainable Chemistry & Catalysis with Boron (ICB), Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jagannath Mondal
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
| | - U Deva Priyakumar
- International Institute of Information Technology Gachibowli, Hyderabad, 500032, India
| | - Holger Braunschweig
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Institute for Sustainable Chemistry & Catalysis with Boron (ICB), Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Cem B Yildiz
- Department of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, Aksaray University, Aksaray, 68100, Turkey
| | - Carola Schulzke
- Institut für Biochemie, Universität Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 4, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Anukul Jana
- Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Hyderabad Gopanpally, Hyderabad, 500046, Telangana, India
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7
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Mohapatra SK, Marder SR, Barlow S. Organometallic and Organic Dimers: Moderately Air-Stable, Yet Highly Reducing, n-Dopants. Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:319-332. [PMID: 35040310 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.1c00612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
ConspectusElectrical doping using redox-active molecules can increase the conductivity of organic semiconductors and lower charge-carrier injection and extraction barriers; it has application in devices such as organic and perovskite light-emitting diodes, organic and perovskite photovoltaic cells, field-effect transistors, and thermoelectric devices. Simple one-electron reductants that can act as n-dopants for a wide range of useful semiconductors must necessarily have low ionization energies and are, thus, highly sensitive toward ambient conditions, leading to challenges in their storage and handling. A number of approaches to this challenge have been developed, in which the highly reducing species is generated from a precursor or in which electron transfer is coupled in some way to a chemical reaction. Many of these approaches are relatively limited in applicability because of processing constraints, limited dopant strength, or the formation of side products.This Account discusses our work to develop relatively stable, yet highly reducing, n-dopants based on the dimers formed by some 19-electron organometallic complexes and by some organic radicals. These dimers are sufficiently inert that they can be briefly handled as solids in air but react with acceptors to release two electrons and to form two equivalents of stable monomeric cations, without formation of unwanted side products. We first discuss syntheses of such dimers, both previously reported and our own. We next turn to discuss their thermodynamic redox potentials, which depend on both the oxidation potential of the highly reducing odd-electron monomers and on the free energies of dissociation of the dimers; because trends in both these quantities depend on the monomer stability, they often more-or-less cancel, resulting in effective redox potentials for a number of the organometallic dimers that are approximately -2.0 V vs ferrocenium/ferrocene. However, variations in the dimer oxidation potential and the dissociation energies determine the mechanism through which a dimer reacts with a given acceptor in solution: in all cases dimer-to-acceptor electron transfer is followed by dimer cation cleavage and a subsequent second electron transfer from the neutral monomer to the acceptor, but examples with weak central bonds can also react through endergonic cleavage of the neutral dimer, followed by electron-transfer reactions between the resulting monomers and the acceptor. We, then, discuss the use of these dimers to dope a wide range of semiconductors through both vacuum and solution processing. In particular, we highlight the role of photoactivation in extending the reach of one of these dopants, enabling successful doping of a low-electron-affinity electron-transport material in an organic light-emitting diode. Finally, we suggest future directions for research using dimeric dopants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swagat K. Mohapatra
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology─Indian Oil Odisha Campus, IIT Kharagpur Extension Center, Bhubaneswar Odisha 751013, India
| | - Seth R. Marder
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, 215 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Stephen Barlow
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
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8
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Scaccabarozzi AD, Basu A, Aniés F, Liu J, Zapata-Arteaga O, Warren R, Firdaus Y, Nugraha MI, Lin Y, Campoy-Quiles M, Koch N, Müller C, Tsetseris L, Heeney M, Anthopoulos TD. Doping Approaches for Organic Semiconductors. Chem Rev 2021; 122:4420-4492. [PMID: 34793134 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Electronic doping in organic materials has remained an elusive concept for several decades. It drew considerable attention in the early days in the quest for organic materials with high electrical conductivity, paving the way for the pioneering work on pristine organic semiconductors (OSCs) and their eventual use in a plethora of applications. Despite this early trend, however, recent strides in the field of organic electronics have been made hand in hand with the development and use of dopants to the point that are now ubiquitous. Here, we give an overview of all important advances in the area of doping of organic semiconductors and their applications. We first review the relevant literature with particular focus on the physical processes involved, discussing established mechanisms but also newly proposed theories. We then continue with a comprehensive summary of the most widely studied dopants to date, placing particular emphasis on the chemical strategies toward the synthesis of molecules with improved functionality. The processing routes toward doped organic films and the important doping-processing-nanostructure relationships, are also discussed. We conclude the review by highlighting how doping can enhance the operating characteristics of various organic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto D Scaccabarozzi
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Aniruddha Basu
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Filip Aniés
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Jian Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg 412 96, Sweden
| | - Osnat Zapata-Arteaga
- Materials Science Institute of Barcelona, ICMAB-CSIC, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Ross Warren
- Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yuliar Firdaus
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia.,Research Center for Electronics and Telecommunication, Indonesian Institute of Science, Jalan Sangkuriang Komplek LIPI Building 20 level 4, Bandung 40135, Indonesia
| | - Mohamad Insan Nugraha
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yuanbao Lin
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mariano Campoy-Quiles
- Materials Science Institute of Barcelona, ICMAB-CSIC, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Norbert Koch
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Kekulé-Strasse 5, 12489 Berlin, Germany.,Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Müller
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg 412 96, Sweden
| | - Leonidas Tsetseris
- Department of Physics, National Technical University of Athens, Athens GR-15780, Greece
| | - Martin Heeney
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Thomas D Anthopoulos
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
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9
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Longhi E, Risko C, Bacsa J, Khrustalev V, Rigin S, Moudgil K, Timofeeva TV, Marder SR, Barlow S. Synthesis, structures, and reactivity of isomers of [RuCp*(1,4-(Me 2N) 2C 6H 4)] 2. Dalton Trans 2021; 50:13020-13030. [PMID: 34581359 DOI: 10.1039/d1dt02155a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
[RuCp*(1,3,5-R3C6H3)]2 {Cp* = η5-pentamethylcyclopentadienyl, R = Me, Et} have previously been found to be moderately air stable, yet highly reducing, with estimated D+/0.5D2 (where D2 and D+ represent the dimer and the corresponding monomeric cation, respectively) redox potentials of ca. -2.0 V vs. FeCp2+/0. These properties have led to their use as n-dopants for organic semiconductors. Use of arenes substituted with π-electron donors is anticipated to lead to even more strongly reducing dimers. [RuCp*(1-(Me2N)-3,5-Me2C6H3)]+PF6- and [RuCp*(1,4-(Me2N)2C6H4)]+PF6- have been synthesized and electrochemically and crystallographically characterized; both exhibit D+/D potentials slightly more cathodic than [RuCp*(1,3,5-R3C6H3)]+. Reduction of [RuCp*(1,4-(Me2N)2C6H4)]+PF6- using silica-supported sodium-potassium alloy leads to a mixture of isomers of [RuCp*(1,4-(Me2N)2C6H4)]2, two of which have been crystallographically characterized. One of these isomers has a similar molecular structure to [RuCp*(1,3,5-Et3C6H3)]2; the central C-C bond is exo,exo, i.e., on the opposite face of both six-membered rings from the metals. A D+/0.5D2 potential of -2.4 V is estimated for this exo,exo dimer, more reducing than that of [RuCp*(1,3,5-R3C6H3)]2 (-2.0 V). This isomer reacts much more rapidly with both air and electron acceptors than [RuCp*(1,3,5-R3C6H3)]2 due to a much more cathodic D2˙+/D2 potential. The other isomer to be crystallographically characterized, along with a third isomer, are both dimerized in an exo,endo fashion, representing the first examples of such dimers. Density functional theory calculations and reactivity studies indicate that the central bonds of these two isomers are weaker than those of the exo,exo isomer, or of [RuCp*(1,3,5-R3C6H3)]2, leading to estimated D+/0.5D2 potentials of -2.5 and -2.6 V vs. FeCp2+/0. At the same time the D2˙+/D2 potentials for the exo,endo dimers are anodically shifted relative to those of [RuCp*(1,3,5-R3C6H3)]2, resulting in much greater air stability than for the exo,exo isomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Longhi
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry & Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA
| | - Chad Risko
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Applied Energy Research (CAER), University of Kentucky, 125 Chemistry-Physics Building, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - John Bacsa
- Crystallography Lab, Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Victor Khrustalev
- Department of Chemistry, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, NM 87701, USA.,Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow 117198, Russia
| | - Sergei Rigin
- Department of Chemistry, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, NM 87701, USA
| | - Karttikay Moudgil
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry & Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA
| | - Tatiana V Timofeeva
- Department of Chemistry, New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas, NM 87701, USA
| | - Seth R Marder
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry & Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA.,Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA. .,Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.,Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.,Chemistry and Nanoscience Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA
| | - Stephen Barlow
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry & Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA.,Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.
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10
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Jhulki S, Un HI, Ding YF, Risko C, Mohapatra SK, Pei J, Barlow S, Marder SR. Reactivity of an air-stable dihydrobenzoimidazole n-dopant with organic semiconductor molecules. Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2021.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Zhang S, Moudgil K, Jucov E, Risko C, Timofeeva TV, Marder SR, Barlow S. Organometallic hydride-transfer agents as reductants for organic semiconductor molecules. Inorganica Chim Acta 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2019.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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12
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Hasegawa E, Nagakura Y, Izumiya N, Matsumoto K, Tanaka T, Miura T, Ikoma T, Iwamoto H, Wakamatsu K. Visible Light and Hydroxynaphthylbenzimidazoline Promoted Transition-Metal-Catalyst-Free Desulfonylation of N-Sulfonylamides and N-Sulfonylamines. J Org Chem 2018; 83:10813-10825. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.8b01536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eietsu Hasegawa
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Yuto Nagakura
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Norihiro Izumiya
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Keisuke Matsumoto
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Tanaka
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Tomoaki Miura
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Tadaaki Ikoma
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
- Center for Coordination of Research Facilities, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Hajime Iwamoto
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-2, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Kan Wakamatsu
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridaicho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-0005, Japan
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13
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Zhang Y, Lee TS, Petersen JL, Milsmann C. A Zirconium Photosensitizer with a Long-Lived Excited State: Mechanistic Insight into Photoinduced Single-Electron Transfer. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:5934-5947. [PMID: 29671586 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b00742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Time-resolved emission spectroscopy for the luminescent zirconium complex Zr(MePDP)2 (MePDP = 2,6-bis(5-methyl-3-phenyl-1 H-pyrrol-2-yl)pyridine) revealed a long-lived excited state with a lifetime τ = 325 ± 10 μs. Computational studies using time-dependent density functional theory were conducted to identify the nature of the luminescent excited state as a mixed triplet intraligand/ligand-to-metal charge-transfer state. Stern-Volmer experiments showed a strong dependence of the quenching rate on the redox potential of the quencher indicating photoinduced single-electron transfer (SET) as the quenching pathway. Mechanistic investigations of the photocatalytic homocoupling of benzyl bromide allowed the detection of organic radical intermediates during turnover and provided further evidence for SET mediated by Zr(MePDP)2. Isolation of the one-electron-reduced form of the photosensitizer, [Zr(MePDP)2]-, enabled studies of its electronic structure by a combination of experimental and computational techniques and confirmed its role as a strong reductant. Additionally, the role of the benzimidazolium hydride derivatives as two-electron sacrificial reductants during photoredox catalysis was investigated. In combination, the results presented in this report establish a detailed mechanistic picture of a photoredox catalytic reaction promoted by an earth-abundant early transition metal photosensitizer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- C. Eugene Bennett Department of Chemistry , West Virginia University , Morgantown , West Virginia 26506 , United States
| | - Tia S Lee
- Department of Chemistry , Princeton University , Princeton , New Jersey 08544 , United States
| | - Jeffrey L Petersen
- C. Eugene Bennett Department of Chemistry , West Virginia University , Morgantown , West Virginia 26506 , United States
| | - Carsten Milsmann
- C. Eugene Bennett Department of Chemistry , West Virginia University , Morgantown , West Virginia 26506 , United States
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14
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Tietze ML, Benduhn J, Pahner P, Nell B, Schwarze M, Kleemann H, Krammer M, Zojer K, Vandewal K, Leo K. Elementary steps in electrical doping of organic semiconductors. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1182. [PMID: 29563497 PMCID: PMC5862893 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03302-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fermi level control by doping is established since decades in inorganic semiconductors and has been successfully introduced in organic semiconductors. Despite its commercial success in the multi-billion OLED display business, molecular doping is little understood, with its elementary steps controversially discussed and mostly-empirical-materials design. Particularly puzzling is the efficient carrier release, despite a presumably large Coulomb barrier. Here we quantitatively investigate doping as a two-step process, involving single-electron transfer from donor to acceptor molecules and subsequent dissociation of the ground-state integer-charge transfer complex (ICTC). We show that carrier release by ICTC dissociation has an activation energy of only a few tens of meV, despite a Coulomb binding of several 100 meV. We resolve this discrepancy by taking energetic disorder into account. The overall doping process is explained by an extended semiconductor model in which occupation of ICTCs causes the classically known reserve regime at device-relevant doping concentrations. Molecular doping is routinely used in organic semiconductor devices nowadays, but the physics at play remains unclarified. Tietze et al. describe it as a two-step process and show it costs little, energetically, to dissociate charge transfer complexes due to energetic disorder of organic semiconductors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max L Tietze
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany. .,Physical Science and Engineering Division, KAUST Solar Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia. .,Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Centre for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis, KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Johannes Benduhn
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Paul Pahner
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Bernhard Nell
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Martin Schwarze
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Hans Kleemann
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Markus Krammer
- NAWI Graz, Institute of Solid State Physics, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 16, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Karin Zojer
- NAWI Graz, Institute of Solid State Physics, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 16, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Koen Vandewal
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany.,Instituut voor Materiaalonderzoek, Hasselt University, Wetenschapspark 1, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Karl Leo
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Nöthnitzer Strasse 61, 01187, Dresden, Germany.
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15
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Wang R, Guo Y, Zhang D, Zhou H, Zhao D, Zhang Y. Improved Electron Transport with Reduced Contact Resistance in N-Doped Polymer Field-Effect Transistors with a Dimeric Dopant. Macromol Rapid Commun 2018; 39:e1700726. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201700726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- School of Chemistry; Beihang University; No. 37 Xueyuan Road Haidian District Beijing 100191 China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nanosystem and Hierarchical Fabrication; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience; National Center for Nanoscience and Technology; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Yikun Guo
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering; Peking University; No. 5 Yiheyuan Road Haidian District Beijing 100871 China
| | - Di Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering; Peking University; No. 5 Yiheyuan Road Haidian District Beijing 100871 China
| | - Huiqiong Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nanosystem and Hierarchical Fabrication; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience; National Center for Nanoscience and Technology; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Dahui Zhao
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering; Peking University; No. 5 Yiheyuan Road Haidian District Beijing 100871 China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- School of Chemistry; Beihang University; No. 37 Xueyuan Road Haidian District Beijing 100191 China
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16
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Visible light-promoted reductive transformations of various organic substances by using hydroxyaryl-substituted benzimidazolines and bases. Tetrahedron 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2016.05.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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17
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Abstract
Organic field-effect transistors hold the promise of enabling low-cost and flexible electronics. Following its success in organic optoelectronics, the organic doping technology is also used increasingly in organic field-effect transistors. Doping not only increases device performance, but it also provides a way to fine-control the transistor behavior, to develop new transistor concepts, and even improve the stability of organic transistors. This Review summarizes the latest progress made in the understanding of the doping technology and its application to organic transistors. It presents the most successful doping models and an overview of the wide variety of materials used as dopants. Further, the influence of doping on charge transport in the most relevant polycrystalline organic semiconductors is reviewed, and a concise overview on the influence of doping on transistor behavior and performance is given. In particular, recent progress in the understanding of contact doping and channel doping is summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Lüssem
- Department of Physics, Kent State University , Kent, Ohio 44242, United States
| | - Chang-Min Keum
- Department of Physics, Kent State University , Kent, Ohio 44242, United States
| | - Daniel Kasemann
- Institut für Angewandte Photophysik, TU Dresden , 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ben Naab
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Zhenan Bao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Karl Leo
- Institut für Angewandte Photophysik, TU Dresden , 01069 Dresden, Germany
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18
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Moudgil K, Mann MA, Risko C, Bottomley LA, Marder SR, Barlow S. Dimers of Nineteen-Electron Sandwich Compounds: An Electrochemical Study of the Kinetics of Their Formation. Organometallics 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.5b00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karttikay Moudgil
- School
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Organic Photonics and
Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0400, United States
| | - Megan A. Mann
- School
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Organic Photonics and
Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0400, United States
| | - Chad Risko
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0055, United States
| | - Lawrence A. Bottomley
- School
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Organic Photonics and
Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0400, United States
| | - Seth R. Marder
- School
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Organic Photonics and
Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0400, United States
| | - Stephen Barlow
- School
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Organic Photonics and
Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0400, United States
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