N-myristoyltransferase: a prospective drug target for protozoan parasites

Switching the regioselectivity of acid-catalyzed reactions of arylnaphtho[2,1-b]furans via a [1,2]-aryl shift

The [1,2]-aryl shift reaction was used to synthesize naphtho[2,1-b]furans as promising fluorescent scaffolds for organic electronics. The target compounds are furan analogues of phenanthrene formally accessed by isosteric replacement of the CHCH moiety with an oxygen atom. The straightforward and robust approach involving a [1,2]-aryl shift as a key step provides easy access to a wide range of naphtho[2,1-b]furans with the possibility of late-stage functionalization. Efficient switching of the regioselectivity of acid-catalyzed reactions of arylnaphtho[2,1-b]furans via a [1,2]-aryl shift has been demonstrated. A one-pot protocol involving sequential intramolecular condensation/[1,2]-aryl shift/intermolecular oxidative aromatic coupling to provide access to binaphtho[2,1-b]furan analogues of BINOL was developed. The advantage of these compounds lies in the strong variation in chemical properties and spectral performance depending on the nature and position of the aryl substituent, which facilitates the synthesis of compounds with desired spectral characteristics and opens up prospects for their further use in electronics, biotechnologies and organic synthesis.

Aminopyridines in the development of drug candidates against protozoan neglected tropical diseases

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) pose a major threat in tropical zones for impoverished populations. Difficulty of access, adverse effects or low efficacy limit the use of current therapeutic options. Therefore, development of new drugs against NTDs is a necessity. Compounds containing an aminopyridine (AP) moiety are of great interest for the design of new anti-NTD drugs due to their intrinsic properties compared with their closest chemical structures. Currently, over 40 compounds with an AP moiety are on the market, but none is used against NTDs despite active research on APs. The aim of this review is to present the medicinal chemistry work carried out with these scaffolds, against protozoan NTDs: Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei or Leishmania spp.

Highly Efficient Synthesis of 2-Substituted Benzo[b]furan Derivatives from the Cross-Coupling Reactions of 2-Halobenzo[b]furans with Organoalane Reagents

A highly efficient and simple route for the synthesis of 2-substituted benzo[b]furans has been developed by palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of 2-halobenzo[b]furans with aryl, alkynyl, and alkylaluminum reagents. Various 2-aryl-, 2-alkynyl-, and 2-alkyl-substituted benzo[b]furan derivatives can be obtained in 23–97% isolated yields using 2–3 mol% PdCl2/4–6 mol% XantPhos as the catalyst under mild reaction conditions. The aryls bearing electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups in 2-halobenzo[b]furans gave products in 40–97% isolated yields. In addition, aluminum reagents containing thienyl, furanyl, trimethylsilanyl, and benzyl groups worked efficiently with 2-halobenzo[b]furans as well, and three bioactive molecules with 2-substituted benzo[b]furan skeleton were synthesized. Furthermore, the broad substrates scope and the typical maintenance of vigorous efficiency on gram scale make this protocol a potentially practical method to synthesize 2-substituted benzo[b]furan derivatives. On the basis of the experimental results, a possible catalytic cycle has been proposed.

A Not-So-Ancient Grease History: Click Chemistry and Protein Lipid Modifications

Protein lipid modification involves the attachment of hydrophobic groups to proteins via ester, thioester, amide, or thioether linkages. In this review, the specific click chemical reactions that have been employed to study protein lipid modification and their use for specific labeling applications are first described. This is followed by an introduction to the different types of protein lipid modifications that occur in biology. Next, the roles of click chemistry in elucidating specific biological features including the identification of lipid-modified proteins, studies of their regulation, and their role in diseases are presented. A description of the use of protein-lipid modifying enzymes for specific labeling applications including protein immobilization, fluorescent labeling, nanostructure assembly, and the construction of protein-drug conjugates is presented next. Concluding remarks and future directions are presented in the final section.

Recent Highlights in Anti-infective Medicinal Chemistry from South Africa

Global advancements in biological technologies have vastly increased the variety of and accessibility to bioassay platforms, while simultaneously improving our understanding of druggable chemical space. In the South African context, this has resulted in a rapid expansion in the number of medicinal chemistry programmes currently operating, particularly on university campuses. Furthermore, the modern medicinal chemist has the advantage of being able to incorporate data from numerous related disciplines into the medicinal chemistry process, allowing for informed molecular design to play a far greater role than previously possible. Accordingly, this review focusses on recent highlights in drug-discovery programmes, in which South African medicinal chemistry groups have played a substantive role in the design and optimisation of biologically active compounds which contribute to the search for promising agents for infectious disease.

Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of alkenyl aluminums with 2-bromobenzo[b]furans

Highly efficient and simple cross-coupling reactions of 2-bromobenzo[b]furans with alkenylaluminum reagents for the synthesis of 2-alkenylbenzo[b]furan derivatives using PdCl₂ (3 mol%)/XantPhos (6 mol%) as catalyst are reported. Excellent yields (up to 97%) were obtained for a wide range of substrates at 80 °C for 4 h in DCE.

PdCl₂ (3 mol%)/XantPhos (6 mol%) complexes was found to be a highly efficient catalyst for the synthesis of 2-alkenylbenzo[b]furans from 2-bromobenzo[b]furans and alkenylaluminums. The reaction was also found to be effective in gram-scale synthesis.

Structural Insights into the Development of Cycloguanil Derivatives as Trypanosoma brucei Pteridine-Reductase-1 Inhibitors

Cycloguanil is a known dihydrofolate-reductase (DHFR) inhibitor, but there is no evidence of its activity on pteridine reductase (PTR), the main metabolic bypass to DHFR inhibition in trypanosomatid parasites. Here, we provide experimental evidence of cycloguanil as an inhibitor of Trypanosoma brucei PTR1 (TbPTR1). A small library of cycloguanil derivatives was developed, resulting in 1 and 2a having IC₅₀ values of 692 and 186 nM, respectively, toward TbPTR1. Structural analysis revealed that the increased potency of 1 and 2a is due to the combined contributions of hydrophobic interactions, H-bonds, and halogen bonds. Moreover, in vitro cell-growth-inhibition tests indicated that 2a is also effective on T. brucei. The simultaneous inhibition of DHFR and PTR1 activity in T. brucei is a promising new strategy for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. For this purpose, 1,6-dihydrotriazines represent new molecular tools to develop potent dual PTR and DHFR inhibitors.

Unpacking the Pathogen Box-An Open Source Tool for Fighting Neglected Tropical Disease

The Pathogen Box is a 400-strong collection of drug-like compounds, selected for their potential against several of the world's most important neglected tropical diseases, including trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, cryptosporidiosis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, schistosomiasis, dengue virus and trichuriasis, in addition to malaria and tuberculosis. This library represents an ensemble of numerous successful drug discovery programmes from around the globe, aimed at providing a powerful resource to stimulate open source drug discovery for diseases threatening the most vulnerable communities in the world. This review seeks to provide an in-depth analysis of the literature pertaining to the compounds in the Pathogen Box, including structure-activity relationship highlights, mechanisms of action, related compounds with reported activity against different diseases, and, where appropriate, discussion on the known and putative targets of compounds, thereby providing context and increasing the accessibility of the Pathogen Box to the drug discovery community.

A Molecular Hybridization Approach for the Design of Potent, Highly Selective, and Brain-Penetrant N-Myristoyltransferase Inhibitors

Crystallography has guided the hybridization of two series of Trypanosoma brucei N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) inhibitors, leading to a novel highly selective series. The effect of combining the selectivity enhancing elements from two pharmacophores is shown to be additive and has led to compounds that have greater than 1000-fold selectivity for TbNMT vs HsNMT. Further optimization of the hybrid series has identified compounds with significant trypanocidal activity capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier. By using CF-1 mdr1a deficient mice, we were able to demonstrate full cures in vivo in a mouse model of stage 2 African sleeping sickness. This and previous work provides very strong validation for NMT as a drug target for human African trypanosomiasis in both the peripheral and central nervous system stages of disease.

Exploiting the 2-Amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole Scaffold To Inhibit Trypanosoma brucei Pteridine Reductase in Support of Early-Stage Drug Discovery

Pteridine reductase-1 (PTR1) is a promising drug target for the treatment of trypanosomiasis. We investigated the potential of a previously identified class of thiadiazole inhibitors of Leishmania major PTR1 for activity against Trypanosoma brucei (Tb). We solved crystal structures of several TbPTR1-inhibitor complexes to guide the structure-based design of new thiadiazole derivatives. Subsequent synthesis and enzyme- and cell-based assays confirm new, mid-micromolar inhibitors of TbPTR1 with low toxicity. In particular, compound 4m, a biphenyl-thiadiazole-2,5-diamine with IC₅₀ = 16 μM, was able to potentiate the antitrypanosomal activity of the dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor methotrexate (MTX) with a 4.1-fold decrease of the EC₅₀ value. In addition, the antiparasitic activity of the combination of 4m and MTX was reversed by addition of folic acid. By adopting an efficient hit discovery platform, we demonstrate, using the 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole scaffold, how a promising tool for the development of anti-T. brucei agents can be obtained.

New developments in probing and targeting protein acylation in malaria, leishmaniasis and African sleeping sickness

Infections by protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium falciparum or Leishmania donovani, have a significant health, social and economic impact and threaten billions of people living in tropical and sub-tropical regions of developing countries worldwide. The increasing range of parasite strains resistant to frontline therapeutics makes the identification of novel drug targets and the development of corresponding inhibitors vital. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are important modulators of biology and inhibition of protein lipidation has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for treatment of parasitic diseases. In this review we summarize the latest insights into protein lipidation in protozoan parasites. We discuss how recent chemical proteomic approaches have delivered the first global overviews of protein lipidation in these organisms, contributing to our understanding of the role of this PTM in critical metabolic and cellular functions. Additionally, we highlight the development of new small molecule inhibitors to target parasite acyl transferases.

Virulence Factors as Targets for Anticryptococcal Therapy

The global mortality due to cryptococcosis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or C. gattii is unacceptably high. Currently available therapies are decades old and may be impacted by drug resistance. Therefore, the need for more effective antifungal drugs for cryptococcosis is evident. A number of Cryptococcus virulence factors have been studied in detail, providing crucial information about the fungal biology and putative molecular targets for antifungals. This review focuses on the use of well-described virulence factors of Cryptococcus as potential anticryptococcal agents.

Validation of N-myristoyltransferase as Potential Chemotherapeutic Target in Mammal-Dwelling Stages of Trypanosoma cruzi

BACKGROUND

Trypanosoma cruzi causes Chagas disease, an endemic and debilitating illness in Latin America. Lately, owing to extensive population movements, this neglected tropical disease has become a global health concern. The two clinically available drugs for the chemotherapy of Chagas disease have rather high toxicity and limited efficacy in the chronic phase of the disease, and may induce parasite resistance. The development of new anti-T. cruzi agents is therefore imperative. The enzyme N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) has recently been biochemically characterized, shown to be essential in Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei, and T. cruzi¸ and proposed as promising chemotherapeutic target in these trypanosomatids.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here, using high-content imaging we assayed eight known trypanosomatid NMT inhibitors, against mammal-dwelling intracellular amastigote and trypomastigote stages and demonstrated that three of them (compounds 1, 5, and 8) have potent anti-proliferative effect at submicromolar concentrations against T. cruzi, with very low toxicity against human epithelial cells. Moreover, metabolic labeling using myristic acid, azide showed a considerable decrease in the myristoylation of proteins in parasites treated with NMT inhibitors, providing evidence of the on-target activity of the inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Taken together, our data point out to the potential use of NMT inhibitors as anti-T. cruzi chemotherapy.

Development of Small-Molecule Trypanosoma brucei N-Myristoyltransferase Inhibitors: Discovery and Optimisation of a Novel Binding Mode

The enzyme N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) from Trypanosoma brucei has been validated both chemically and biologically as a potential drug target for human African trypanosomiasis. We previously reported the development of some very potent compounds based around a pyrazole sulfonamide series, derived from a high-throughput screen. Herein we describe work around thiazolidinone and benzomorpholine scaffolds that were also identified in the screen. An X-ray crystal structure of the thiazolidinone hit in Leishmania major NMT showed the compound bound in the previously reported active site, utilising a novel binding mode. This provides potential for further optimisation. The benzomorpholinone was also found to bind in a similar region. Using an X-ray crystallography/structure-based design approach, the benzomorpholinone series was further optimised, increasing activity against T. brucei NMT by >1000-fold. A series of trypanocidal compounds were identified with suitable in vitro DMPK properties, including CNS exposure for further development. Further work is required to increase selectivity over the human NMT isoform and activity against T. brucei.

N-terminal region of the catalytic domain of human N-myristoyltransferase 1 acts as an inhibitory module

N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) plays critical roles in the modulation of various signaling molecules, however, the regulation of this enzyme in diverse cellular states remains poorly understood. We provide experimental evidence to show for the first time that for the isoform 1 of human NMT (hNMT1), the regulatory roles extend into the catalytic core. In our present study, we expressed, purified, and characterized a truncation mutant devoid of 28 N-terminal amino acids from the catalytic module (Δ28-hNMT1s) and compared its properties to the full-length catalytic domain of hNMT1. The deletion of the N-terminal peptide had no effect on the enzyme stability. Our findings suggest that the N-terminal region in the catalytic module of hNMT1 functions serves as a regulatory control element. The observations of an ~3 fold increase in enzymatic efficiency following removal of the N-terminal peptide of hNMT1s indicates that N-terminal amino acids acts as an inhibitory segment and negatively regulate the enzyme activity. Our findings that the N-terminal region confers control over activity, taken together with the earlier observations that the N-terminal of hNMT1 is differentially processed in diverse cellular states, suggests that the proteolytic processing of the peptide segment containing the inhibitory region provides a molecular mechanism for physiological up-regulation of myristoyltransferase activity.

Identification and structure solution of fragment hits against kinetoplastid N-myristoyltransferase

Trypanosoma brucei N-myristoyltransferase (TbNMT) is an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. Pyrazole sulfonamide (DDD85646), a potent inhibitor of TbNMT, has been identified in previous studies; however, poor central nervous system exposure restricts its use to the haemolymphatic form (stage 1) of the disease. In order to identify new chemical matter, a fragment screen was carried out by ligand-observed NMR spectroscopy, identifying hits that occupy the DDD85646 binding site. Crystal structures of hits from this assay have been obtained in complex with the closely related NMT from Leishmania major, providing a structural starting point for the evolution of novel chemical matter.

Fluorination of 2-substituted benzo[b]furans with Selectfluor™

An efficient protocol was developed to access 3-fluoro-2-hydroxy-2-substituted benzo[b]furans with Selectfluor™ as the fluorinating reagent in MeCN and water. By utilizing SOCl₂/Py as the dehydrating agent, the compounds above were readily converted to 3-fluorinated, 2-substituted benzo[b]furans in high yields.

Lead optimization of a pyrazole sulfonamide series of Trypanosoma brucei N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors: identification and evaluation of CNS penetrant compounds as potential treatments for stage 2 human African trypanosomiasis

Trypanosoma bruceiN-myristoyltransferase (TbNMT) is an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). From previous studies, we identified pyrazole sulfonamide, DDD85646 (1), a potent inhibitor of TbNMT. Although this compound represents an excellent lead, poor central nervous system (CNS) exposure restricts its use to the hemolymphatic form (stage 1) of the disease. With a clear clinical need for new drug treatments for HAT that address both the hemolymphatic and CNS stages of the disease, a chemistry campaign was initiated to address the shortfalls of this series. This paper describes modifications to the pyrazole sulfonamides which markedly improved blood–brain barrier permeability, achieved by reducing polar surface area and capping the sulfonamide. Moreover, replacing the core aromatic with a flexible linker significantly improved selectivity. This led to the discovery of DDD100097 (40) which demonstrated partial efficacy in a stage 2 (CNS) mouse model of HAT.

Structure-based design of potent and selective Leishmania N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors

Inhibitors of LeishmaniaN-myristoyltransferase (NMT), a potential target for the treatment of leishmaniasis, obtained from a high-throughput screen, were resynthesized to validate activity. Crystal structures bound to Leishmania major NMT were obtained, and the active diastereoisomer of one of the inhibitors was identified. On the basis of structural insights, enzyme inhibition was increased 40-fold through hybridization of two distinct binding modes, resulting in novel, highly potent Leishmania donovani NMT inhibitors with good selectivity over the human enzyme.

A target repurposing approach identifies N-myristoyltransferase as a new candidate drug target in filarial nematodes

Myristoylation is a lipid modification involving the addition of a 14-carbon unsaturated fatty acid, myristic acid, to the N-terminal glycine of a subset of proteins, a modification that promotes their binding to cell membranes for varied biological functions. The process is catalyzed by myristoyl-CoA:protein N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), an enzyme which has been validated as a drug target in human cancers, and for infectious diseases caused by fungi, viruses and protozoan parasites. We purified Caenorhabditis elegans and Brugia malayi NMTs as active recombinant proteins and carried out kinetic analyses with their essential fatty acid donor, myristoyl-CoA and peptide substrates. Biochemical and structural analyses both revealed that the nematode enzymes are canonical NMTs, sharing a high degree of conservation with protozoan NMT enzymes. Inhibitory compounds that target NMT in protozoan species inhibited the nematode NMTs with IC₅₀ values of 2.5–10 nM, and were active against B. malayi microfilariae and adult worms at 12.5 µM and 50 µM respectively, and C. elegans (25 µM) in culture. RNA interference and gene deletion in C. elegans further showed that NMT is essential for nematode viability. The effects observed are likely due to disruption of the function of several downstream target proteins. Potential substrates of NMT in B. malayi are predicted using bioinformatic analysis. Our genetic and chemical studies highlight the importance of myristoylation in the synthesis of functional proteins in nematodes and have shown for the first time that NMT is required for viability in parasitic nematodes. These results suggest that targeting NMT could be a valid approach for the development of chemotherapeutic agents against nematode diseases including filariasis.

Lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis are neglected tropical diseases caused by filarial nematodes. The limitations of existing drugs to treat these infections highlight the need for new drugs. In the present study, we investigated myristoylation, a lipid modification of a subset of proteins that promotes their binding to cell membranes for varied biological functions. The process is catalyzed by N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), an enzyme which has been validated as a drug target in protozoan parasites. We performed kinetic analyses on Caenorhabditis elegans and Brugia malayi NMTs. NMT inhibitors were active against B. malayi microfilariae and adult worms, and C. elegans in culture. RNA interference and gene deletion in C. elegans further demonstrated that NMT is essential for nematode viability. Our genetic and chemical studies indicate the importance of myristoylation in the synthesis of functional proteins in nematodes and have shown for the first time that NMT is required for viability in parasitic nematodes. These results suggest that targeting NMT could be a valid approach for the development of new therapies against nematode infection including filarial diseases.

From crystal to compound: structure-based antimalarial drug discovery

Despite a century of control and eradication campaigns, malaria remains one of the world's most devastating diseases. Our once-powerful therapeutic weapons are losing the war against the Plasmodium parasite, whose ability to rapidly develop and spread drug resistance hamper past and present malaria-control efforts. Finding new and effective treatments for malaria is now a top global health priority, fuelling an increase in funding and promoting open-source collaborations between researchers and pharmaceutical consortia around the world. The result of this is rapid advances in drug discovery approaches and technologies, with three major methods for antimalarial drug development emerging: (i) chemistry-based, (ii) target-based, and (iii) cell-based. Common to all three of these approaches is the unique ability of structural biology to inform and accelerate drug development. Where possible, SBDD (structure-based drug discovery) is a foundation for antimalarial drug development programmes, and has been invaluable to the development of a number of current pre-clinical and clinical candidates. However, as we expand our understanding of the malarial life cycle and mechanisms of resistance development, SBDD as a field must continue to evolve in order to develop compounds that adhere to the ideal characteristics for novel antimalarial therapeutics and to avoid high attrition rates pre- and post-clinic. In the present review, we aim to examine the contribution that SBDD has made to current antimalarial drug development efforts, covering hit discovery to lead optimization and prevention of parasite resistance. Finally, the potential for structural biology, particularly high-throughput structural genomics programmes, to identify future targets for drug discovery are discussed.

Diverse modes of binding in structures of Leishmania major N-myristoyltransferase with selective inhibitors

The leishmaniases are a spectrum of global diseases of poverty associated with immune dysfunction and are the cause of high morbidity. Despite the long history of these diseases, no effective vaccine is available and the currently used drugs are variously compromised by moderate efficacy, complex side effects and the emergence of resistance. It is therefore widely accepted that new therapies are needed. N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) has been validated pre-clinically as a target for the treatment of fungal and parasitic infections. In a previously reported high-throughput screening program, a number of hit compounds with activity against NMT from Leishmania donovani have been identified. Here, high-resolution crystal structures of representative compounds from four hit series in ternary complexes with myristoyl-CoA and NMT from the closely related L. major are reported. The structures reveal that the inhibitors associate with the peptide-binding groove at a site adjacent to the bound myristoyl-CoA and the catalytic α-carboxylate of Leu421. Each inhibitor makes extensive apolar contacts as well as a small number of polar contacts with the protein. Remarkably, the compounds exploit different features of the peptide-binding groove and collectively occupy a substantial volume of this pocket, suggesting that there is potential for the design of chimaeric inhibitors with significantly enhanced binding. Despite the high conservation of the active sites of the parasite and human NMTs, the inhibitors act selectively over the host enzyme. The role of conformational flexibility in the side chain of Tyr217 in conferring selectivity is discussed.

N-Myristoyltransferase as a potential drug target in malaria and leishmaniasis

Infections caused by protozoan parasites are among the most widespread and intractable transmissible diseases affecting the developing world, with malaria and leishmaniasis being the most costly in terms of morbidity and mortality. Although new drugs are urgently required against both diseases in the face of ever-rising resistance to frontline therapies, very few candidates passing through development pipelines possess a known and novel mode of action. Set in the context of drugs currently in use and under development, we present the evidence for N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), an enzyme that N-terminally lipidates a wide range of specific target proteins through post-translational modification, as a potential drug target in malaria and the leishmaniases. We discuss the limitations of current knowledge regarding the downstream targets of this enzyme in protozoa, and our recent progress towards potent cell-active NMT inhibitors against the most clinically-relevant species of parasite. Finally, we outline the next steps required in terms of both tools to understand N-myristoylation in protozoan parasites, and the generation of potential development candidates based on the output of our recently-reported high-throughput screens.

High-throughput profiling of N-myristoylation substrate specificity across species including pathogens

One of the most critical modifications affecting the N-terminus of proteins is N-myristoylation. This irreversible modification affects the membrane-binding properties of crucial proteins involved in signal transduction cascades. This cotranslational modification, catalyzed by N-myristoyl transferase, occurs both in lower and higher eukaryotes and is a validated therapeutic target for several pathologies. However, this lipidation proves very difficult to be evidenced in vivo even with state-of-the-art proteomics approaches or bioinformatics tools. A large part of N-myristoylated proteins remains to be discovered and the rules of substrate specificity need to be established in each organism. Because the peptide substrate recognition occurs around the first eight residues, short peptides are used for modeling the reaction in vitro. Here, we provide a novel approach including a dedicated peptide array for high-throughput profiling protein N-myristoylation specificity. We show that myristoylation predictive tools need to be fine-tuned to organisms and that their poor accuracy should be significantly enhanced. This should lead to strongly improved knowledge of the number and function of myristoylated proteins occurring in any proteome.

Discovery of novel and ligand-efficient inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax N-myristoyltransferase

N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) is an attractive antiprotozoan drug target. A lead-hopping approach was utilized in the design and synthesis of novel benzo[b]thiophene-containing inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) and Plasmodium vivax (Pv) NMT. These inhibitors are selective against Homo sapiens NMT1 (HsNMT), have excellent ligand efficiency (LE), and display antiparasitic activity in vitro. The binding mode of this series was determined by crystallography and shows a novel binding mode for the benzothiophene ring.

Design and synthesis of inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum N-myristoyltransferase, a promising target for antimalarial drug discovery

Design of inhibitors for N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), an enzyme responsible for protein trafficking in Plasmodium falciparum , the most lethal species of parasites that cause malaria, is described. Chemistry-driven optimization of compound 1 from a focused NMT inhibitor library led to the identification of two early lead compounds 4 and 25, which showed good enzyme and cellular potency and excellent selectivity over human NMT. These molecules provide a valuable starting point for further development.

A new, robust, and nonradioactive approach for exploring N-myristoylation

Myristoyl-CoA (CoA):protein N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) catalyzes protein modification through covalent attachment of a C14 fatty acid (myristic acid) to the N-terminal glycine of proteins, thus promoting protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions. NMT is essential for the viability of numerous human pathogens and is also up-regulated in several tumors. Here we describe a new, nonradioactive, ELISA-based method for measuring NMT activity. After the NMT-catalyzed reaction between a FLAG-tagged peptide and azido-dodecanoyl-CoA (analog of myristoyl-CoA), the resulting azido-dodecanoyl-peptide-FLAG was coupled to phosphine-biotin by Staudinger ligation, captured by plate-bound anti-FLAG antibodies and detected by streptavidin-peroxidase. The assay was validated with negative controls (including inhibitors), corroborated by HPLC analysis, and demonstrated to function with fresh or frozen tissues. Recombinant murine NMT1 and NMT2 were characterized using this new method. This versatile assay is applicable for exploring recombinant NMTs with regard to their activity, substrate specificity, and possible inhibitors as well as for measuring NMT-activity in tissues.

Selective inhibitors of protozoan protein N-myristoyltransferases as starting points for tropical disease medicinal chemistry programs

Inhibition of N-myristoyltransferase has been validated pre-clinically as a target for the treatment of fungal and trypanosome infections, using species-specific inhibitors. In order to identify inhibitors of protozoan NMTs, we chose to screen a diverse subset of the Pfizer corporate collection against Plasmodium falciparum and Leishmania donovani NMTs. Primary screening hits against either enzyme were tested for selectivity over both human NMT isoforms (Hs1 and Hs2) and for broad-spectrum anti-protozoan activity against the NMT from Trypanosoma brucei. Analysis of the screening results has shown that structure-activity relationships (SAR) for Leishmania NMT are divergent from all other NMTs tested, a finding not predicted by sequence similarity calculations, resulting in the identification of four novel series of Leishmania-selective NMT inhibitors. We found a strong overlap between the SARs for Plasmodium NMT and both human NMTs, suggesting that achieving an appropriate selectivity profile will be more challenging. However, we did discover two novel series with selectivity for Plasmodium NMT over the other NMT orthologues in this study, and an additional two structurally distinct series with selectivity over Leishmania NMT. We believe that release of results from this study into the public domain will accelerate the discovery of NMT inhibitors to treat malaria and leishmaniasis. Our screening initiative is another example of how a tripartite partnership involving pharmaceutical industries, academic institutions and governmental/non-governmental organisations such as Medical Research Council and Wellcome Trust can stimulate research for neglected diseases.

Inhibition of N-myristoyltransferase has been validated pre-clinically as a target for the treatment of fungal and trypanosome infections, using species-specific inhibitors. In order to identify inhibitors of protozoan NMTs, we chose to screen a diverse subset of the Pfizer corporate collection against Plasmodium falciparum and Leishmania donovani NMTs. Primary screening hits against either enzyme were tested for selectivity over both human NMT isoforms (HsNMT1 and HsNMT2) and for broad-spectrum anti-protozoan activity against the NMT from Trypanosoma brucei. We have identified eight series of protozoan NMT inhibitors, six having good selectivity for either Plasmodium or Leishmania NMTs over the other orthologues in this study. We believe that all of these series could form the basis of medicinal chemistry programs to deliver drug candidates against either malaria or leishmaniasis. Our screening initiative is another example of how a tripartite partnership involving pharmaceutical industries, academic institutions and governmental/non-governmental organisations such as the UK Medical Research Council and Wellcome Trust can stimulate research for neglected diseases.

Discovery of Plasmodium vivax N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors: screening, synthesis, and structural characterization of their binding mode

N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) is a prospective drug target against parasitic protozoa. Herein we report the successful discovery of a series of Plasmodium vivax NMT inhibitors by high-throughput screening. A high-resolution crystal structure of the hit compound in complex with NMT was obtained, allowing understanding of its novel binding mode. A set of analogues was designed and tested to define the chemical groups relevant for activity and selectivity.

Discovery of a novel class of orally active trypanocidal N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors

N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) represents a promising drug target for human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), which is caused by the parasitic protozoa Trypanosoma brucei. We report the optimization of a high throughput screening hit (1) to give a lead molecule DDD85646 (63), which has potent activity against the enzyme (IC(50) = 2 nM) and T. brucei (EC(50) = 2 nM) in culture. The compound has good oral pharmacokinetics and cures rodent models of peripheral HAT infection. This compound provides an excellent tool for validation of T. brucei NMT as a drug target for HAT as well as a valuable lead for further optimization.

A fluorescence-based assay for N-myristoyltransferase activity

N-myristoylation is the irreversible attachment of a C(14) fatty acid, myristic acid, to the N-terminal glycine of a protein via formation of an amide bond. This modification is catalyzed by myristoyl-coenzyme A (CoA):protein N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), an enzyme ubiquitous in eukaryotes that is up-regulated in several cancers. Here we report a sensitive fluorescence-based assay to study the enzymatic activity of human NMT1 and NMT2 based on detection of CoA by 7-diethylamino-3-(4-maleimido-phenyl)-4-methylcoumarin. We also describe expression and characterization of NMT1 and NMT2 and assay validation with small molecule inhibitors. This assay should be broadly applicable to NMTs from a range of organisms.

State of the art in African trypanosome drug discovery

African sleeping sickness is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa where the WHO estimates that 60 million people are at risk for the disease. Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is 100% fatal if untreated and the current drug therapies have significant limitations due to toxicity and difficult treatment regimes. No new chemical agents have been approved since eflornithine in 1990. The pentamidine analog DB289, which was in late stage clinical trials for the treatment of early stage HAT recently failed due to toxicity issues. A new protocol for the treatment of late-stage T. brucei gambiense that uses combination nifurtomox/eflornithine (NECT) was recently shown to have better safety and efficacy than eflornithine alone, while being easier to administer. This breakthrough represents the only new therapy for HAT since the approval of eflornithine. A number of research programs are on going to exploit the unusual biochemical pathways in the parasite to identify new targets for target based drug discovery programs. HTS efforts are also underway to discover new chemical entities through whole organism screening approaches. A number of inhibitors with anti-trypanosomal activity have been identified by both approaches, but none of the programs are yet at the stage of identifying a preclinical candidate. This dire situation underscores the need for continued effort to identify new chemical agents for the treatment of HAT.

N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors as new leads to treat sleeping sickness

African sleeping sickness or human African trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosoma brucei spp., is responsible for approximately 30,000 deaths each year. Available treatments for this disease are poor, with unacceptable efficacy and safety profiles, particularly in the late stage of the disease when the parasite has infected the central nervous system. Here we report the validation of a molecular target and the discovery of associated lead compounds with the potential to address this lack of suitable treatments. Inhibition of this target-T. brucei N-myristoyltransferase-leads to rapid killing of trypanosomes both in vitro and in vivo and cures trypanosomiasis in mice. These high-affinity inhibitors bind into the peptide substrate pocket of the enzyme and inhibit protein N-myristoylation in trypanosomes. The compounds identified have promising pharmaceutical properties and represent an opportunity to develop oral drugs to treat this devastating disease. Our studies validate T. brucei N-myristoyltransferase as a promising therapeutic target for human African trypanosomiasis.

Protein myristoylation in health and disease

N-myristoylation is the attachment of a 14-carbon fatty acid, myristate, onto the N-terminal glycine residue of target proteins, catalysed by N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), a ubiquitous and essential enzyme in eukaryotes. Many of the target proteins of NMT are crucial components of signalling pathways, and myristoylation typically promotes membrane binding that is essential for proper protein localisation or biological function. NMT is a validated therapeutic target in opportunistic infections of humans by fungi or parasitic protozoa. Additionally, NMT is implicated in carcinogenesis, particularly colon cancer, where there is evidence for its upregulation in the early stages of tumour formation. However, the study of myristoylation in all organisms has until recently been hindered by a lack of techniques for detection and identification of myristoylated proteins. Here we introduce the chemistry and biology of N-myristoylation and NMT, and discuss new developments in chemical proteomic technologies that are meeting the challenge of studying this important co-translational modification in living systems.

Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulation of N-myristoyltransferase from protozoan parasites: active site characterization and insights into rational inhibitor design

Myristoyl-CoA:protein N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) is a cytosolic monomeric enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of the myristoyl group from myristoyl-CoA to the N-terminal glycine of a number of eukaryotic cellular and viral proteins. Recent experimental data suggest NMT from parasites could be a promising new target for the design of novel antiparasitic agents with new mode of action. However, the active site topology and inhibitor specificity of these enzymes remain unclear. In this study, three-dimensional models of NMT from Plasmodium falciparum (PfNMT), Leishmania major (LmNMT) and Trypanosoma brucei (TbNMT) were constructed on the basis of the crystal structures of fungal NMTs using homology modeling method. The models were further refined by energy minimization and molecular dynamics simulations. The active sites of PfNMT, LmNMT and TbNMT were characterized by multiple copy simultaneous search (MCSS). MCSS functional maps reveal that PfNMT, LmNMT and TbNMT share a similar active site topology, which is defined by two hydrophobic pockets, a hydrogen-bonding (HB) pocket, a negatively-charged HB pocket and a positively-charged HB pocket. Flexible docking approaches were then employed to dock known inhibitors into the active site of PfNMT. The binding mode, structure-activity relationships and selectivity of inhibitors were investigated in detail. From the results of molecular modeling, the active site architecture and certain key residues responsible for inhibitor binding were identified, which provided insights for the design of novel inhibitors of parasitic NMTs.