Differential distribution of butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase in the human thalamus

Differential senolytic inhibition of normal versus Aβ-associated cholinesterases: implications in aging and Alzheimer's disease

Cellular senescence is a hallmark of aging and the age-related condition, Alzheimer's disease (AD). How senescence contributes to cholinergic and neuropathologic changes in AD remains uncertain. Furthermore, little is known about the relationship between senescence and cholinesterases (ChEs). Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) are important in neurotransmission, cell cycle regulation, and AD amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology. Senolytic agents have shown therapeutic promise in AD models. Therefore, we evaluated in vitro and in silico activity of senolytics, dasatinib (1), nintedanib (2), fisetin (3), quercetin (4), GW2580 (5), and nootropic, meclofenoxate hydrochloride (6), toward AChE and BChE. As ChEs associated with AD pathology have altered biochemical properties, we also evaluated agents 1-6 in AD brain tissues. Enzyme kinetics showed agents 1, 3, 4, and 6 inhibited both ChEs, while 2 and 5 inhibited only AChE. Histochemistry showed inhibition of Aβ plaque-associated ChEs (1 and 2: both ChEs; 5: BChE; 6: AChE), but not normal neural-associated ChEs. Modeling studies showed 1-6 interacted with the same five binding locations of both ChEs, some of which may be allosteric sites. These agents may exert their beneficial effects, in part, by inhibiting ChEs associated with AD pathology and provide new avenues for development of next-generation inhibitors targeting pathology-associated ChEs.

Modulatory Neurotransmitter Genotypes Shape Dynamic Functional Connectome Reconfigurations

Dynamic reconfigurations of the functional connectome across different connectivity states are highly heritable, predictive of cognitive abilities, and linked to mental health. Despite their established heritability, the specific polymorphisms that shape connectome dynamics are largely unknown. Given the widespread regulatory impact of modulatory neurotransmitters on functional connectivity, we comprehensively investigated a large set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of their receptors, metabolic enzymes, and transporters in 674 healthy adult subjects (347 females) from the Human Connectome Project. Preregistered modulatory neurotransmitter SNPs and dynamic connectome features entered a Stability Selection procedure with resampling. We found that specific subsets of these SNPs explain individual differences in temporal phenotypes of fMRI-derived connectome dynamics for which we previously established heritability. Specifically, noradrenergic polymorphisms explained Fractional Occupancy, i.e., the proportion of time spent in each connectome state, and cholinergic polymorphisms explained Transition Probability, i.e., the probability to transition between state pairs, respectively. This work identifies specific genetic effects on connectome dynamics via the regulatory impact of modulatory neurotransmitter systems. Our observations highlight the potential of dynamic connectome features as endophenotypes for neurotransmitter-focused precision psychiatry.

Organophosphate toxicity patterns: A new approach for assessing organophosphate neurotoxicity

Organophosphorus compounds or organophosphates (OPs) are widely used as flame retardants, plasticizers, lubricants and pesticides. This contributes to their ubiquitous presence in the environment and to the risk of human exposure. The persistence of OPs and their bioaccumulative characteristics raise serious concerns regarding environmental and human health impacts. To address the need for safer OPs, this study uses a New Approach Method (NAM) to analyze the neurotoxicity pattern of 42 OPs. The NAM consists of a 4-step process that combines computational modeling with in vitro and in vivo experimental studies. Using spherical harmonic-based cluster analysis, the OPs were grouped into four main clusters. Experimental data and quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) analysis were used in conjunction to provide information on the neurotoxicity profile of each group. Results showed that one of the identified clusters had a favorable safety profile, which may help identify safer OPs for industrial applications. In addition, the 3D-computational analysis of each cluster was used to identify meta-molecules with specific 3D features. Toxicity was found to correspond to the level of phosphate surface accessibility. Substances with conformations that minimize phosphate surface accessibility caused less neurotoxic effect. This multi-assay NAM could be used as a guide for the classification of OP toxicity, helping to minimize the health and environmental impacts of OPs, and providing rapid support to the chemical regulators, whilst reducing reliance on animal testing.

Onset of Alzheimer disease in apolipoprotein ɛ4 carriers is earlier in butyrylcholinesterase K variant carriers

BACKGROUND

The authors sought to examine the impact of the K-variant of butyrylcholinesterase (BCHE-K) carrier status on age-at-diagnosis of Alzheimer disease (AD) in APOE4 carriers.

METHODS

Patients aged 50-74 years with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarker-confirmed AD, were recruited to clinical trial (NCT03186989 since June 14, 2017). Baseline demographics, disease characteristics, and biomarkers were evaluated in 45 patients according to BCHE-K and APOE4 allelic status in this post-hoc study.

RESULTS

In APOE4 carriers (N = 33), the mean age-at-diagnosis of AD in BCHE-K carriers (n = 11) was 6.4 years earlier than in BCHE-K noncarriers (n = 22, P < .001, ANOVA). In APOE4 noncarriers (N = 12) there was no observed influence of BCHE-K. APOE4 carriers with BCHE-K also exhibited slightly higher amyloid and tau accumulations compared to BCHE-K noncarriers. A predominantly amyloid, limited tau, and limbic-amnestic phenotype was exemplified by APOE4 homozygotes with BCHE-K. In the overall population, multiple regression analyses demonstrated an association of amyloid accumulation with APOE4 carrier status (P < .029), larger total brain ventricle volume (P < .021), less synaptic injury (Ng, P < .001), and less tau pathophysiology (p-tau181, P < .005). In contrast, tau pathophysiology was associated with more neuroaxonal damage (NfL, P = .002), more synaptic injury (Ng, P < .001), and higher levels of glial activation (YKL-40, P = .01).

CONCLUSION

These findings have implications for the genetic architecture of prognosis in early AD, not the genetics of susceptibility to AD. In patients with early AD aged less than 75 years, the mean age-at-diagnosis of AD in APOE4 carriers was reduced by over 6 years in BCHE-K carriers versus noncarriers. The functional status of glia may explain many of the effects of APOE4 and BCHE-K on the early AD phenotype.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT03186989 since June 14, 2017.

Perioperative point-of-care-testing of plasmacholinesterases identifies older patients at risk for postoperative delirium: an observational prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Postoperative delirium (POD) is a severe perioperative complication that may increase mortality and length-of-stay in older patients. Moreover, POD is a major economic burden to any healthcare system. An altered expression of Acetylcholine- and Butyrylcholinesterases (AChE, BuChE) due to an unbalanced neuroinflammatory response to trauma or an operative stimulus has been reported to play an essential role in the development of POD. We investigated if perioperative measurement of cholinesterases (ChEs) can help identifying patients at risk for the occurrence of POD in both, scheduled and emergency surgery patients.

METHODS

This monocentric prospective observational cohort study was performed in a tertiary hospital (departments of orthopaedic surgery and traumatology). One hundred and fifty-one patients aged above 75 years were enrolled for scheduled (n = 76) or trauma-related surgery (n = 75). Exclusion criteria were diagnosed dementia and anticholinergic medication. Plasma samples taken pre- and postoperatively were analysed regarding AChE and BuChE activity. Furthermore, perioperative assessment using different cognitive tests was performed. The type of anaesthesia (general vs. spinal anaesthesia) was analysed. Primary outcome was the incidence of POD assessed by the approved Confusion Assessment Method (CAM) in combination with the expression of AChE and BuChE.

RESULTS

Of 151 patients included, 38 (25.2%) suffered from POD; 11 (14%) in scheduled and 27 (36%) in emergency patients. AChE levels showed no difference throughout groups or time course. Trauma patients had lower BuChE levels prior to surgery than scheduled patients (p < 0.001). Decline in BuChE levels correlated positively with the incidence of POD (1669 vs. 1175 U/l; p < 0.001). Emergency patients with BuChE levels below 1556 U/L were at highest risk for POD. There were no differences regarding length of stay between groups or incidence of POD. The type of anaesthesia had no influence regarding the incidence of POD. Only Charlson Comorbidity Index and Mini Nutrition Assessment demonstrated reliable strength in respect of POD.

CONCLUSIONS

Perioperative measurement of BuChE activity can be used as a tool to identify patients at risk of POD. As a point-of-care test, quick results may alter the patients' course prior to the development of POD.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://drks.de/search/de/trial/DRKS00017178 .

A method for the efficient evaluation of substrate-based cholinesterase imaging probes for Alzheimer's disease

Cholinesterase (ChE) enzymes have been identified as diagnostic markers for Alzheimer disease (AD). Substrate-based probes have been synthesised to detect ChEs but they have not detected changes in ChE distribution associated with AD pathology. Probes are typically screened using spectrophotometric methods with pure enzyme for specificity and kinetics. However, the biochemical properties of ChEs associated with AD pathology are altered. The present work was undertaken to determine whether the Karnovsky-Roots (KR) histochemical method could be used to evaluate probes at the site of pathology. Thirty thioesters and esters were synthesised and evaluated using enzyme kinetic and KR methods. Spectrophotometric methods demonstrated all thioesters were ChE substrates, yet only a few provided staining in the brain with the KR method. Esters were ChE substrates with interactions with brain ChEs. These results suggest that the KR method may provide an efficient means to screen compounds as probes for imaging AD-associated ChEs.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of substituted acetamide derivatives as potential butyrylcholinestrase inhibitors

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of age-related dementia. Inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) emerge as an effective therapeutic target for AD. A series of new substituted acetamide derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their ability to inhibit BChE. The bioassay results revealed that several compounds displayed attractive inhibition against BChE). Among them, compound 8c exhibited the highest BChE inhibition with IC₅₀ values of 3.94 μM. Lineweaver Burk plot indicated that 8c acted as a mixed-type BChE inhibitor. In addition, docking studies confirmed the results obtained through in vitro experiments, and showed that 8c bound to the catalytic anionic site (CAS) and peripheral anionic site (PAS) of BChE active site. Meanwhile, its ADME parameters were approximated using in silico method. Molecular dynamics simulation studies on the complex of 8c-BChE were performed, RMSD, RMSF, Rg, SASA, and the number of hydrogen bonds were calculated as well. These results implied that 8c could serve as appropriate lead molecule for the development of BChE inhibitor.

Immunohistochemistry for acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMNV) of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue: comparison with reported literature

The majority of research regarding the expression of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) in the brain has been conducted using histochemistry to identify enzymatic activity in frozen fixed tissue. However, retrospective human neurochemistry studies are generally restricted to formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues that are not suitable for histochemical procedures. The availability of commercially available antibody formulations provides the means to study such tissues by immunohistochemistry (IHC). In this study, we optimised IHC conditions for evaluating the expression of AChE and BuChE in the brainstem, focusing on the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, in human and piglet FFPE tissues, using commercially available antibodies. Our results were compared to published reports of histochemically determined AChE and BuChE expression. We varied antibody concentrations and antigen retrieval methods, and evaluated different detection systems, with the overall aim to optimise immunohistochemical staining. The primary findings, consistent across both species, are: (1) AChE and BuChE expression dominated in the neuronal somata, specifically in the neuronal cytoplasm; and (2) no change in the protocol resulted in axonal/neuropil expression of AChE. These results indicate that IHC is a suitable tool to detect AChE and BuChE in FFPE tissue using commercial antibodies, albeit the staining patterns obtained differed from those using histochemistry in frozen tissue. The underlying cause(s) for these differences are discussed in detail and may be associated with the principal components of the staining method, the antibody protein target and/or limitations to the detection of epitopes by tissue fixation.

Evaluation of cholinergic enzymes and selected biochemical parameters in the serum of patients with a diagnosis of acute subarachnoid hemorrhage

Background

Spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is the most severe form of hemorrhagic stroke and accounts for 5-7% of all strokes. Several chemical enzymes and cytokines are thought to cause reactions that may affect the mortality and morbidity of SAH patients. This study aimed to examine the possible relationships between these parameters and the occurrence of SAH and the clinical-radiological parameters in patients with acute SAH.

Methods

This study evaluated 44 patients, including 20 with SAH and 24 controls. We obtained blood from the patients and control groups, which was stored in heparinized tubes and used in determining tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), caspase-3, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) enzymes.

Results

TNF-α, BDNF, AChE, and BChE enzyme levels were not related to the Glasgow Coma scale (GCS) score in the patient group (p > 0.05), whereas higher enzyme levels of caspase-3 were associated with lower GCS scores (p < 0.05). The difference between the control and patient groups in terms of mean TNF-α levels was statistically significant (p < 0.01). The BDNF levels were statistically insignificant in the patient groups (p > 0.05). Caspase-3, AChE, and BChE levels were significantly different between the control and patient groups (p < 0.01).

Conclusions

Our results may be valuable for predicting the prognosis, diagnosis, and follow-up of patients with SAH. However, further studies are required to elucidate the relationship between the clinical and radiological results in patients with SAH and certain enzymes, cytokines, and growth factors.

Bioassay Analysis and Molecular Docking Study Revealed the Potential Medicinal Activities of Active Compounds Polygonumins B, C and D from Polygonum minus (Persicaria minor)

Polygonumins B, C and D, derivative compounds of polygonumins A, were isolated from the stem of Polygonum minus. Based on NMR results, the structure of polygonumins derivatives is comprised of four phenylpropanoid units and a sucrose unit, with a similar structure to polygonumins A. However, the structural differences between polygonumins B (1), C (2) and D (3) can be distinguished based on the existence of methoxy, ethanoyl and hydroxyl groups and protons which bind to C-4, C-4′ and C-3″. Interestingly, these bioactive compounds showed various medicinal properties based on our investigation on antioxidant, anticholinesterase and anti-HIV-1 protease activities. The IC50 value of DPPH and ABTS (antioxidant activities) was in the following descending order: polygonumins B > polygonumins C > polygonumins A > polygonumins D. In addition, almost similar pattern of antioxidant activity was observed for anti-acetylcholinesterase activity based on its IC50 value in descending order: polygonumins B > polygonumins C > polygonumins D > polygonumins A. On the other hand, polygonumins C and D showed inhibition of HIV-1 protease activity more than the positive control, pepstatin A. Finally, molecular docking studies on AChE and BChE proteins were carried out in order to gain insight into the mode of interactions between these compounds and the active residues for both enzymes. These remarkable findings indicate that these compounds have potential to be developed as targeted drugs for Alzheimer’s disease or as anti-HIV drugs.

Kinetics and computational study of butyrylcholinesterase inhibition by methylrosmarinate: relevance to Alzheimer's disease treatment

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) performs a significant function in Alzheimer’s disease progression. Experimental studies have shown that the function of BChE in the attenuation of cholinergic neurotransmission is essentially altered in brains of advanced AD patients. Here, using the complimentary methods of enzyme kinetic studies, molecular modeling and protein-ligand interaction profiling, we sought to reveal the mechanistic and structural features of BChE-methyrosmarinate interactions. Molecular docking simulations revealed that methylrosmarinate dwelled well in the active centre of BChE, where it got involved in stabilizing non-covalent associations with myriad subsites. Enzyme kinetic experiments showed that the V_m and K_s values were 156.20 ± 3.11 U mg⁻¹ protein and 0.13 ± 0.01 μM, respectively. The inhibition studies showed that methylrosmarinate apparently inhibited BChE in a linear mixed manner, with an IC₅₀ value of 10.31 μM and a K_i value of 3.73 ± 1.52 μM. Taken together, the extremely reduced K_i value and the increased number of BChE–methylrosmarinate interactions presuppose that methylrosmarinate is a good inhibitor of BChE, despite the fact that the mechanism for the effect of BChE inhibition on several pathological conditions in vivo remains unexplored.

Butyrylcholinesterase is a potential biomarker for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

Background

Autonomic dysfunction has been implicated in the pathophysiology of the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is an enzyme of the cholinergic system, a major branch of the autonomic system, and may provide a measure of autonomic (dys)function. This study was undertaken to evaluate BChE activity in infants and young children who had died from Sudden Infant Death or Sudden Unexpected Death.

Methods

In this case-control study we measured BChE activity and total protein in the eluate of 5μL spots punched from the dried blood spots taken at birth as part of the newborn screening program. Results for each of 67 sudden unexpected deaths classified by the coroner (aged 1 week-104 weeks) = Cases, were compared to 10 date of birth - and gender-matched surviving controls (Controls), with five cases reclassified to meet criteria for SIDS, including the criterion of age 3 weeks to 1 year.

Findings

Conditional logistic regression showed that in groups where cases were reported as “SIDS death” there was strong evidence that lower BChE specific activity (BChEsa) was associated with death (OR=0·73 per U/mg, 95% CI 0·60-0·89, P=0·0014), whereas in groups with a “Non-SIDS death” as the case there was no evidence of a linear association between BChEsa and death (OR=1·001 per U/mg, 95% CI 0·89-1·13, P=0·99).

Interpretation

BChEsa, measured in dried blood spots taken 2-3 days after birth, was lower in babies who subsequently died of SIDS compared to surviving controls and other Non-SIDS deaths. We conclude that a previously unidentified cholinergic deficit, identifiable by abnormal -BChEsa, is present at birth in SIDS babies and represents a measurable, specific vulnerability prior to their death.

Funding

All funding provided by a crowd funding campaign https://www.mycause.com.au/p/184401/damiens-legacy

Butyrylcholinesterase-Protein Interactions in Human Serum

Measuring various biochemical and cellular components in the blood is a routine procedure in clinical practice. Human serum contains hundreds of diverse proteins secreted from all cells and tissues in healthy and diseased states. Moreover, some serum proteins have specific strong interactions with other blood components, but most interactions are probably weak and transient. One of the serum proteins is butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), an enzyme existing mainly as a glycosylated soluble tetramer that plays an important role in the metabolism of many drugs. Our results suggest that BChE interacts with plasma proteins and forms much larger complexes than predicted from the molecular weight of the BChE tetramer. To investigate and isolate such complexes, we developed a two-step strategy to find specific protein–protein interactions by combining native size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with affinity chromatography with the resin that specifically binds BChE. Second, to confirm protein complexes′ specificity, we fractionated blood serum proteins by density gradient ultracentrifugation followed by co-immunoprecipitation with anti-BChE monoclonal antibodies. The proteins coisolated in complexes with BChE were identified by mass spectroscopy. These binding studies revealed that BChE interacts with a number of proteins in the human serum. Some of these interactions seem to be more stable than transient. BChE copurification with ApoA-I and the density of some fractions containing BChE corresponding to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) during ultracentrifugation suggest its interactions with HDL. Moreover, we observed lower BChE plasma activity in individuals with severely reduced HDL levels (≤20 mg/dL). The presented two-step methodology for determination of the BChE interactions can facilitate further analysis of such complexes, especially from the brain tissue, where BChE could be involved in the pathogenesis and progression of AD.

Strategic approaches to target the enzymes using natural compounds for the management of Alzheimer's disease: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease. It is clinically characterized by memory loss and intellectual decrease, among other neurological deficits. The etiology of AD is not completely understood but includes amyloid plaques and intracellular helical filaments as well as neurofibrillary tangles with hyperphosphorylated tau protein. AD is also associated with alterations in amyloid processing genes, such as PSEN1 or PSEN2 and APP. The modulation immune system, cholesterol metabolism, and synaptic vesicle endocytosis have all been shown to remediate AD. In this review, enzymes such as AChE, BuChE, β-secretase, γ-secretase, MAO, and RAGE are discussed as potential targets for AD treatment. The aim of this review was to addresses the molecular mechanisms as well as various genetic factors in AD etiology. The use of natural compounds against these targets might be beneficial for the management of AD.

Synthesis and Initial Characterization of a Selective, Pseudo-irreversible Inhibitor of Human Butyrylcholinesterase as PET Tracer

The enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) represents a promising target for imaging probes to potentially enable early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD) and to monitor disease progression in some forms of cancer. In this study, we present the design, facile synthesis, in vitro and preliminary ex vivo and in vivo evaluation of a morpholine-based, selective inhibitor of human BChE as a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer with a pseudo-irreversible binding mode. We demonstrate a novel protecting group strategy for 18 F radiolabeling of carbamate precursors and show that the inhibitory potency as well as kinetic properties of our unlabeled reference compound were retained in comparison to the parent compound. In particular, the prolonged duration of enzyme inhibition of such a morpholinocarbamate motivated us to design a PET tracer, possibly enabling a precise mapping of BChE distribution.

Longitudinal evaluation of a novel BChE PET tracer as an early in vivo biomarker in the brain of a mouse model for Alzheimer disease

Purpose: The increase in butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity in the brain of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients and animal models of AD position this enzyme as a potential biomarker of the disease. However, the information on the ability of BChE to serve as AD biomarker is contradicting, also due to scarce longitudinal studies of BChE activity abundance. Here, we report ¹¹C-labeling, in vivo stability, biodistribution, and longitudinal study on BChE abundance in the brains of control and 5xFAD (AD model) animals, using a potent BChE selective inhibitor, [¹¹C]4, and positron emission tomography (PET) in combination with computerised tomography (CT). We correlate the results with in vivo amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition, longitudinally assessed by [¹⁸F]florbetaben-PET imaging.

Methods: [¹¹C]4 was radiolabelled through ¹¹C-methylation. Metabolism studies were performed on blood and brain samples of female wild type (WT) mice. Biodistribution studies were performed in female WT mice using dynamic PET-CT imaging. Specific binding was demonstrated by ex vivo and in vivo PET imaging blocking studies in female WT and 5xFAD mice at the age of 7 months. Longitudinal PET imaging of BChE was conducted in female 5xFAD mice at 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 months of age and compared to age-matched control animals. Additionally, Aβ plaque distribution was assessed in the same mice using [¹⁸F]florbetaben at the ages of 2, 5, 7 and 11 months. The results were validated by ex vivo staining of BChE at 4, 8, and 12 months and Aβ at 12 months on brain samples.

Results: [¹¹C]4 was produced in sufficient radiochemical yield and molar activity for the use in PET imaging. Metabolism and biodistribution studies confirmed sufficient stability in vivo, the ability of [¹¹C]4 to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) and rapid washout from the brain. Blocking studies confirmed specificity of the binding. Longitudinal PET studies showed increased levels of BChE in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, thalamus, cerebellum and brain stem in aged AD mice compared to WT littermates. [¹⁸F]Florbetaben-PET imaging showed similar trend of Aβ plaques accumulation in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus of AD animals as the one observed for BChE at ages 4 to 8 months. Contrarily to the results obtained by ex vivo staining, lower abundance of BChE was observed in vivo at 10 and 12 months than at 8 months of age.

Conclusions: The BChE inhibitor [¹¹C]4 crosses the BBB and is quickly washed out of the brain of WT mice. Comparison between AD and WT mice shows accumulation of the radiotracer in the AD-affected areas of the brain over time during the early disease progression. The results correspond well with Aβ accumulation, suggesting that BChE is a promising early biomarker for incipient AD.

Clinicopathological correlations and cholinesterase expression in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease with the presenilin 1 mutation, Leu235Pro

In sporadic Alzheimer's disease (SpAD), acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase, co-regulators of acetylcholine, are associated with β-amyloid plaques and tau neurofibrillary tangles in patterns suggesting a contribution to neurotoxicity. This association has not been explored in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD). We investigated whether cholinesterases are observed in the neuropathological hallmarks in FAD expressing the presenilin 1 Leu235Pro mutation. Brain tissues from three FAD cases and one early-onset SpAD case were stained and analyzed for β-amyloid, tau, α-synuclein, acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. AD pathology was prominent throughout the rostrocaudal extent of all 4 brains but α-synuclein-positive neurites were present in only one familial case. In FAD and SpAD cases, cholinergic activity was associated with plaques and tangles but not with α-synuclein pathology. Both cholinesterases showed similar or decreased plaque staining than detected with β-amyloid immunostaining but greater plaque deposition than observed with thioflavin-S histofluorescence. Acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase are highly associated with AD pathology in inherited disease and both may represent specific diagnostic and therapeutic targets for all AD forms.

The Role of Butyrylcholinesterase and Iron in the Regulation of Cholinergic Network and Cognitive Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia in elderly individuals, is marked by progressive neuron loss. Despite more than 100 years of research on AD, there is still no treatment to cure or prevent the disease. High levels of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain are neuropathological hallmarks of AD. However, based on postmortem analyses, up to 44% of individuals have been shown to have high Aβ deposits with no clinical signs, due to having a “cognitive reserve”. The biochemical mechanism explaining the prevention of cognitive impairment in the presence of Aβ plaques is still unknown. It seems that in addition to protein aggregation, neuroinflammatory changes associated with aging are present in AD brains that are correlated with a higher level of brain iron and oxidative stress. It has been shown that iron accumulates around amyloid plaques in AD mouse models and postmortem brain tissues of AD patients. Iron is required for essential brain functions, including oxidative metabolism, myelination, and neurotransmitter synthesis. However, an imbalance in brain iron homeostasis caused by aging underlies many neurodegenerative diseases. It has been proposed that high iron levels trigger an avalanche of events that push the progress of the disease, accelerating cognitive decline. Patients with increased amyloid plaques and iron are highly likely to develop dementia. Our observations indicate that the butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) level seems to be iron-dependent, and reports show that BChE produced by reactive astrocytes can make cognitive functions worse by accelerating the decay of acetylcholine in aging brains. Why, even when there is a genetic risk, do symptoms of the disease appear after many years? Here, we discuss the relationship between genetic factors, age-dependent iron tissue accumulation, and inflammation, focusing on AD.

Non-neuronal Role of Acetylcholinesterase in Bone Development and Degeneration

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme catalyzing the degradation of acetylcholine, plays an important suppressive role in the cholinergic regulation by terminating the action of acetylcholine. The expression of acetylcholinesterase and other cholinergic components is not restricted to only brain and nerve tissues but can also be found in non-neuronal tissues like the immune system and bone tissue. Primary identification of these components has been achieved. However, the information about their specific functions and underlying molecular mechanisms in bone remains scattered. Here, the physiological process of bone development, homeostasis, and degeneration are introduced. Next, the cholinergic system and its expression in bone tissue is documented. Among them, special attention goes to AChE, as the structure of this enzyme suggests diverse binding affinities, enabled by a peripheral site and a catalytic site. The peripheral site supports the non-enzymatic function of AChE in non-neuronal systems. Based on recent studies, the non-neuronal roles of acetylcholinesterase, both enzymatically and non-enzymatically, in bone development, homeostasis and degeneration are summarized briefly together with potential mechanisms to support these functions. We conclude that AChE may be a potential therapeutic target for bone diseases like osteoporosis.

Imaging Butyrylcholinesterase in Multiple Sclerosis

PURPOSE

Molecular imaging agents targeting butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) have shown promise in other neurodegenerative disorders and may have utility in detecting changes to normal appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis (MS). BChE activity is present in white matter and localizes to activated microglia associated with MS lesions. The purpose of this study was to further characterize changes in the cholinergic system in MS pathology, and to explore the utility of BChE radioligands as potential diagnostic and treatment monitoring agents in MS.

PROCEDURE

Cortical and white matter lesions were identified using myelin staining, and lesions were classified based on microglial activation patterns. Adjacent brain sections were used for cholinesterase histochemistry and in vitro autoradiography using phenyl 4-[¹²³I]-iodophenylcarbamate (¹²³I-PIP), a previously described small-molecule cholinesterase-binding radioligand.

RESULTS

BChE activity is positively correlated with microglial activation in white matter MS lesions. There is no alteration in cholinesterase activity in cortical MS lesions. ¹²³I-PIP autoradiography revealed uptake of radioactivity in normal white matter, absence of radioactivity within demyelinated MS lesions, and variable uptake of radioactivity in adjacent normal-appearing white matter.

CONCLUSIONS

BChE imaging agents have the potential to detect MS lesions and subtle pathology in normal-appearing white matter in postmortem MS brain tissue. The possibility of BChE imaging agents serving to supplement current diagnostic and treatment monitoring strategies should be evaluated.

Reduced neurobehavioral functioning in agricultural workers and rural inhabitants exposed to pesticides in northern Chile and its association with blood biomarkers inhibition

BACKGROUND

Previous biomonitoring studies have shown that people in the rural population of Coquimbo, the major agricultural area in northern Chile are being occupationally and environmentally exposed to organophosphate/carbamate (OP/CB) pesticides. Given their harmful effects, this study had two aims; first, to evaluate the effect of cumulative or chronic exposure to OP/CB pesticides on the neurobehavioral performance of agricultural workers and rural inhabitants; second, to determine if changes in the neurobehavioral performance are associated to changes in blood biomarkers of OP/CB pesticides during the spray season, when exposure is higher.

METHODS

For the first aim, a cross sectional study of neurobehavioral performance in adult volunteers (men and women, 18-50 years-old, right-handed) was carried out in the pre-spray season. Sampling was done by convenience and a questionnaire was used to categorize participants depending on their level of chronic exposure, as either: occupationally exposed (OE, n = 87), environmentally exposed (EE, n = 81), or non-exposed controls or reference group (RG, n = 100). A neurobehavioral test battery consisting of 21 tests to measure cognitive, motor and emotional state was applied. For the second aim, neurobehavioral measures were taken a second time from EE and OE groups during the spray season, and their exposure corroborated by blood-based biomarker inhibition.

RESULTS

Lower neurobehavioral performance was observed in the pre-spray evaluation of EE and OE groups compared to the non-exposed, OE being the worst performing group. Seasonal exposure impaired performance in both exposure groups on all tests except those on attention and mood. Data modeling of the basal (pre-spray) measurements showed that the level of exposure was the best predictor of performance. During spraying, inhibition of BChE activity in the EE group was the best predictor of low performance in tests measuring logical, auditory and visual memory, inhibitory control of cognitive interference, constructional and planning abilities, executive functions, and motor speed and coordination.

CONCLUSION

Long-term occupational or environmental exposure to pesticides caused impairment in neurobehavioral functioning, which worsened during the spraying season, mainly in EE. BChE inhibition was the best predictor for seasonal neurobehavioral changes in EE.

Effect of rutin on anxiety-like behavior and activity of acetylcholinesterase isoforms in specific brain regions of pentylenetetrazol-treated mice

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of rutin administration (100 mg/kg/day) to pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-treated Balb-c mice (60 mg/kg/day), with respect to anxiety-like behavior using both open-field and elevated plus-maze (EPM) tests, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in salt-soluble (SS) fraction and detergent-soluble (DS) fraction of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, midbrain, and diencephalon. Our results demonstrated that the administration of PTZ in 3 doses and the induction of seizures increased significantly anxiety behavior of mice and reduced significantly DS-AChE activity in all brain regions examined, while the reduction in the SS fraction was brain region-specific. Rutin administration to normal mice did not affect their behavior, while it induced a brain region-specific reduction in SS-AChE and a significant decrease in DS-AChE in all brain regions. We demonstrated for the first time that pretreatment of PTZ-mice with rutin (PTZ + Rutin group) prevented the manifestation of anxiety and induced interestingly a further significant reduction on the SS- and DS-AChE activities only in the cerebral cortex and striatum, in comparison with PTZ group. Our results show that rutin exhibits an important anxiolytic effect and an anticholinesterase activity in specific brain areas in the seizure model of PTZ.

Butyrylcholinesterase Protein Ends in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease-Could BCHE Genotyping Be Helpful in Alzheimer's Therapy?

Late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is clinically characterized by a progressive decline of memory and other cognitive functions leading to the loss of the ability to perform everyday activities. Only a few drugs have been approved to treat AD dementia over the past century since the first AD patient was diagnosed. Drugs increasing the availability of neurotransmitters at synapses in the brain are used clinically in the treatment of AD dementia, and cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) are the mainstay of the therapy. A detrimental effect on cognitive function has been reported in patients with pharmacological inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) by ChEIs and reduced butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity due to the single nucleotide polymorphisms. The BChE K-variant (rs1803274), the most common genetic variant of the BCHE gene, was thought to reduce enzyme activity reflecting the lower clinical response to rivastigmine in AD patients. During ChEIs therapy, patients carrying reduced-activity BChE do not present such improved attention like patients with the wild-type enzyme. On the other hand, alterations in the BCHE gene causing enzyme activity reduction may delay AD onset in patients at risk by preserving the level of cortical acetylcholine (ACh). Based on our previous results, we conclude that SNPs localized outside of the coding sequence, in 5’UTR (rs1126680) and/or intron 2 (rs55781031) of the BCHE gene, but not solely K-variant alteration (p.A539T) itself, are responsible for reduced enzyme activity. Therefore, we suspect that not BChE-K itself, but these coexisting SNPs (rs1126680 and rs55781031), could be associated with deleterious changes in cognitive decline in patients treated with ChEIs. Based on the results, we suggest that SNPs (rs1126680) and/or (rs55781031) genotyping should be performed to identify subjects at risk for lowered efficacy ChEIs therapy, and such patients should be treated with a lower rivastigmine dosage. Finally, our sequence analysis of the N-terminal end of N-BChE revealed evolutionarily conserved amino acid residues that can be involved in disulfide bond formation and anchoring of N-BChE in the cell membrane.

Subchronic use of rivastigmine increases procognitive flexibility across multimodal behavioral tasks in healthy male rats

Rivastigmine (RVT) is a reversible inhibitor of cholinesterase approved worldwide for the treatment of cognitive dysfunctions, especially in Alzheimer's disease. Most previous pre-clinical studies have examined the effects of RVT treatment in a wide variety of pathological research models. Nonetheless, the effects of this drug on sensorimotor gating, memory, and learning tasks in healthy subjects remains unclear. In this study, we investigate the procognitive effects of RVT treatment in healthy rats through sensorimotor gating evaluations (measured as prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex), active avoidance learning, and spatial memory learning in a radial maze. There is an increase in the amplitude of the startle reflex in RVT-treated rats compared to the control groups, whereas the latency remained constant. Sensorimotor gating values were also incremented compared to those values from controls. In active avoidance, rats treated with RVT learned faster to successfully perform the task compared to controls, but afterwards all groups exhibited virtually identical results. During the sessions in the radial maze, RVT-treated rats committed fewer errors in both the working and reference memory compared to controls. All in all, our results support the hypothesis that RVT treatment may entail procognitive effects in healthy subjects.

Synergy between the alteration in the N-terminal region of butyrylcholinesterase K variant and apolipoprotein E4 in late-onset Alzheimer's disease

While the life expectancy of the population has increased, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has emerged as one of the greatest health problems of old age. AD is characterized by neuronal loss and cognitive decline. In the AD brain, there is a decrease in levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and an increase in the levels of the related enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), that accumulate in plaques and tangles. Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a major cholesterol carrier and plays an important role in maintaining lipid homeostasis. APOE-ε4 constitutes the most important known genetic risk factor for late-onset AD. It has been proposed that the BCHE-K allele (Ala539Thr) acts in synergy with the APOE-ε4 allele to promote risk for AD. However, there is insufficient evidence to support a correlation. Most studies focused only on the coding regions of the genes. In this study, we analyzed sequence regions beyond the BCHE coding sequence. We found synergy between APOE-ε4 and SNPs localized in 5′UTR (rs1126680) and in intron 2 (rs55781031) of the BCHE-K allele (rs1803274) in 18% of patients with late-onset AD (n = 55). The results show that the coexistence of the APOE-ε4 allele and 3 SNPs in the BCHE gene is associated with a highly elevated risk of late-onset AD. SNP (rs1126680) in 5′UTR of the BCHE gene is located 32 nucleotides upstream of the 28 amino acid signal peptide. Mass spectrometry analysis of the BChE protein produced by SNP (rs1126680) showed that the mutation caused an in frame N-terminal extension of 41 amino acids of the BChE signal peptide. The resultant variant with a 69 amino acid signal peptide, designated N-BChE, may play a role in development of AD.

Computational and experimental studies on the interaction between butyrylcholinesterase and fluoxetine: implications in health and disease

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is a serine esterase that plays a role in the detoxification of natural as well as synthetic ester-bond-containing compounds. Alterations in BChE activity are associated with a number of diseases. Cholinergic system abnormalities in particular are correlated with the formation of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and administration of cholinesterase inhibitors is a common therapeutic approach used to treat AD. Here, our aim was to study the interaction between BChE and fluoxetine. Molecular docking simulations revealed that fluoxetine penetrated deep into the active-site gorge of BChE and that it was engaged in stabilizing noncovalent interactions with multiple subsites. In substrate kinetic studies, the V_m, K_m, k_cat and k_cat/K_m values were found to be 20.59 ± 0.36 U mg^-1 protein, 194 ± 14 µM, 1.3 × 10⁸ s^-1 and 6.7 × 10⁵ µM^-1s^-1, respectively. Based on inhibitory studies, fluoxetine appeared to inhibit BChE competitively, with an IC₅₀ value of 104 µM and a K_i value of 36.3 ± 4.7 µM. Overall, both the low K_i value and the high number of BChE-fluoxetine interactions suggest that fluoxetine is a potent inhibitor of BChE, although in vivo mechanisms for the direct effects of BChE inhibition on various pathologies remain to be further investigated.

The cholinergic system in the basal forebrain of the Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus)

The basal forebrain (BFB) cholinergic neurotransmitter system is important in a number of brain functions including attention, memory, and the sleep-wake cycle. The size of this region has been linked to the increase in encephalization of the brain in a number of species. Cetaceans, particularly those belonging to the family Delphinidae, have a relatively large brain compared to its body size and it is expected that the cholinergic BFB in the dolphin would be a prominent feature. However, this has not yet been explored in detail. This study examines and maps the neuroanatomy and cholinergic chemoarchitecture of the BFB in the Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus). As in some other mammals, the BFB in this species is a prominent structure along the medioventral surface of the brain. The parcellation and distribution of cholinergic neural elements of the dolphin BFB was comparable to that observed in other mammals in that it has a medial septal nucleus, a nucleus of the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca, a nucleus of the horizontal limb of the diagonal band of Broca, and a nucleus basalis of Meynert. The observed BFB cholinergic system of this dolphin is consistent with evolutionarily conserved and important functions for survival.

Quantification of Butyrylcholinesterase Activity as a Sensitive and Specific Biomarker of Alzheimer's Disease

Amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques are a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD); however, a significant number of cognitively normal older adults can also have Aβ plaques. Thus, distinguishing AD from cognitively normal individuals with Aβ plaques (NwAβ) based on Aβ plaque detection is challenging. It has been observed that butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) accumulates in plaques preferentially in AD. Thus, detecting BChE-associated plaques has the potential as an improved AD biomarker. We present Aβ, thioflavin-S, and BChE quantification of 26 postmortem brain tissues; AD (n = 8), NwAβ (n = 6), cognitively normal without plaques (n = 8), and other common dementias including corticobasal degeneration, frontotemporal dementia with tau, dementia with Lewy bodies, and vascular dementia. Pathology burden in the orbitofrontal cortex, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampal formation was determined and compared. The predictive value of Aβ and BChE quantification was determined, via receiver-operating characteristic plots, to evaluate their AD diagnostic performance using sensitivity, specificity, and area under curve (AUC) metrics. In general, Aβ and BChE-associated pathology were greater in AD, particularly in the orbitofrontal cortex. In this region, the largest increase (9.3-fold) was in BChE-associated pathology, observed between NwAβ and AD, due to the virtual absence of BChE-associated plaques in NwAβ brains. Furthermore, BChE did not associate with pathology of the other dementias. In this sample, BChE-associated pathology provided better diagnostic performance (AUC = 1.0, sensitivity/specificity = 100% /100%) when compared to Aβ (AUC = 0.98, 100% /85.7%). These findings highlight the predictive value of BChE as a biomarker for AD that could facilitate timely disease diagnosis and management.

The concept of hybrid molecules of tacrine and benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid (BQCA) as multifunctional agents for Alzheimer's disease

Novel tacrine-benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid (tacrine-BQCA) hybrids were designed based on multi-target directed ligands (MTLDs) paradigm, synthesized and evaluated in vitro as inhibitors of human acetylcholinesterase (hAChE) and human butyrylcholinesterase (hBChE). Tacrine moiety is represented herein as 7-methoxytacrine, 6-chlorotacrine or unsubstituted tacrine forming three different families of seven members, i.e. 21 compounds in overall. Introducing BQCA, a positive modulator of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), the action of novel compounds on M1 mAChRs was evaluated via Fluo-4 NW assay on the Chinese hamster ovarian (CHO-M1WT2) cell line. All the novel tacrine-BQCA hybrids were able to block the action of hAChE and hBChE in micromolar to nanomolar range. The hAChE kinetic profile of 5p was found to be mixed-type which is consistent with our docking experiments. Moreover, selected ligands were assessed for their potential hepatotoxicity on HepG2 cell line and presumable permeation through the blood-brain barrier by PAMPA assay. Expected agonistic profile towards M1 mAChRs delivered by BQCA moiety was not confirmed. From all the hybrids, 5o can be highlighted as non-selective cholinesterase inhibitor (hAChE IC₅₀ = 74.5 nM; hBChE IC₅₀ = 83.3 nM) with micromolar antagonistic activity towards M1 mAChR (IC₅₀ = 4.23 μM). A non-selective pattern of cholinesterase inhibition is likely to be valuable during the onset as well as later stages of AD.

Plasma butyrylcholinesterase activity: a possible biomarker for differential diagnosis between Alzheimer's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies?

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is an enzyme encoded by BCHE gene, responsible for secondary hydrolysis of the acetylcholine. K and -116A BCHE variants were associated with decrease in plasma BChE activity, and their influence has been investigated in diseases with a cholinergic deficit such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). In order to check the influence of BCHE genetic variants on enzymatic activity, all patients and controls were genotyped for K and -116A variants. We found lower plasma BChE activity in DLB patients compared to elderly controls and to AD independent of the presence of K or -116A variants. Our results suggest that the reduction of total plasma BChE activity is probably associated with a feedback mechanism and provides a future perspective of using this enzyme as a possible plasmatic marker for differential diagnosis between AD and DLB.

Development of acetophenone ligands as potential neuroimaging agents for cholinesterases

Association of cholinesterase with β-amyloid plaques and tau neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease offers an opportunity to detect disease pathology during life. Achieving this requires development of radiolabelled cholinesterase ligands with high enzyme affinity. Various fluorinated acetophenone derivatives bind to acetylcholinesterase with high affinity, including 2,2,2-trifluoro-1-(3-dimethylaminophenyl)ethanone (1) and 1-(3-tert-butylphenyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroethanone (2). Such compounds also offer potential for incorporation of radioactive fluorine (¹⁸F) for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of cholinesterases in association with Alzheimer's disease pathology in the living brain. Here we describe the synthesis of two meta-substituted chlorodifluoroacetophenones using a Weinreb amide strategy and their rapid conversion to the corresponding trifluoro derivatives through nucleophilic substitution by fluoride ion, in a reaction amenable to incorporating ¹⁸F for PET imaging. In vitro kinetic analysis indicates tight binding of the trifluoro derivatives to cholinesterases. Compound 1 has a K_i value of 7nM for acetylcholinesterase and 1300nM for butyrylcholinesterase while for compound 2 these values are 0.4nM and 26nM, respectively. Tight binding of these compounds to cholinesterase encourages their development for PET imaging detection of cholinesterase associated with Alzheimer's disease pathology.

Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of a Geissospermum vellosii stem bark fraction

Geissospermum vellosii (Pao pereira) is a Brazilian tree whose stem barks are rich in indole alkaloids that present intense anticholinesterase activity. The present study evaluated the effects of a stem bark fraction (PPAC fraction) and ethanolic extract (EE) of Pao pereira in classic murine models of inflammation and pain. The EE and PPAC fraction, both at a dose of 30 mg/kg, significantly reduced mice abdominal constriction induced by acetic acid by 34.8% and 47.5%, respectively. In the formalin test, EE (30 mg/kg) and PPAC fraction (30 and 60 mg/kg) inhibited only the second phase, by 82.8%, 84.9% and 100%, respectively. Compared with indomethacin, similar doses of EE or PPAC fraction were approximately twice as effective in causing antinociception. PPAC fraction was not effective in the hot plate test but reduced the inflammatory response at the second (50.6%) and third (57.8%) hours of rat paw edema induced by carrageenan. Antihyperalgesic activity was observed within 30 min with a peak at 2 h (60.1%). These results demonstrate that compounds in PPAC fraction have anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity by a mechanism apparently unrelated to the opioid system. Regardless of similar responses to indomethacin, the effects of PPAC fraction are mainly attributed to acetylcholine actions.

Enzyme-linked DNA dendrimer nanosensors for acetylcholine

It is currently difficult to measure small dynamics of molecules in the brain with high spatial and temporal resolution while connecting them to the bigger picture of brain function. A step towards understanding the underlying neural networks of the brain is the ability to sense discrete changes of acetylcholine within a synapse. Here we show an efficient method for generating acetylcholine-detecting nanosensors based on DNA dendrimer scaffolds that incorporate butyrylcholinesterase and fluorescein in a nanoscale arrangement. These nanosensors are selective for acetylcholine and reversibly respond to levels of acetylcholine in the neurophysiological range. This DNA dendrimer architecture has the potential to overcome current obstacles to sensing in the synaptic environment, including the nanoscale size constraints of the synapse and the ability to quantify the spatio-temporal fluctuations of neurotransmitter release. By combining the control of nanosensor architecture with the strategic placement of fluorescent reporters and enzymes, this novel nanosensor platform can facilitate the development of new selective imaging tools for neuroscience.

Differential effects of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors on clinical responses and cerebral blood flow changes in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a 12-month, randomized, and open-label trial

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The present study evaluated the differences in treatment outcomes and brain perfusion changes among 3 types of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AchEIs, i.e. donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine).

METHODS

This was a prospective, longitudinal, randomized, open-label, 3-arm (donepezil, rivastigmine, or galantamine), parallel-group, 12-month clinical trial carried out in 55 patients with AD.

RESULTS

At 6 months, the results of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Trail Making Test (TMT)-Part A showed an improvement versus baseline in the donepezil treatment group. All groups showed a significant increase in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), mainly in the frontal lobe. Significant rCBF reduction was observed in the temporal lobe and cingulate gyrus in all 3 groups.

CONCLUSION

AchEI treatment prevents the progression of cognitive impairment and increases the relative rCBF in the frontal lobe.

Asynaptic feature and heterogeneous distribution of the cholinergic innervation of the globus pallidus in primates

The internal (GPi) and external (GPe) segments of the primate globus pallidus receive a significant cholinergic (ACh) innervation from the brainstem pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. The present immunohistochemical study describes this innervation in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus), as visualized with an antibody raised against choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). At the light microscopic level, unbiased stereological quantification of ChAT positive (+) axon varicosities reveals a significantly lower density of innervation in GPi (0.26 ± 0.03 × 10⁶) than in GPe (0.47 ± 0.07 × 10⁶ varicosities/mm³ of tissue), with the anterior half of both segments more densely innervated than the posterior half. Neuronal density of GPi (3.00 ± 0.13 × 10³ neurons/mm³) and GPe (3.62 ± 0.22 × 10³ neurons/mm³) yields a mean ratio of ChAT+ axon varicosities per pallidal neuron of 74 ± 10 in the GPi and 128 ± 28 in the GPe. At the electron microscopic level, the pallidal ChAT+ axon varicosities are significantly smaller than their unlabeled counterparts, but are comparable in size and shape in the two pallidal segments. Only a minority of ChAT+ varicosities displays a synaptic specialization (12 % in the GPi and 17 % in the GPe); these scarce synaptic contacts are mostly of the symmetrical type and occur exclusively on pallidal dendrites. No ChAT+ axo-axonic synaptic contacts are observed, suggesting that ACh exerts its modulatory action on pallidal afferents through diffuse transmission, whereas pallidal neurons may be influenced by both volumic and synaptic delivery of ACh.

Butyrylcholinesterase: impact on symptoms and progression of cognitive impairment

The most successful approach for treating people with Alzheimer's disease to date has been by improving cholinergic transmission using cholinesterase inhibitors. Many of these drugs selectively inhibit acetylcholinesterase but some agents inhibit both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. Recent evidence from studies examining butyrylcholinesterase in post mortem brain samples from dementia patients and examining the relationship between butyrylcholinesterase polymorphisms and the progression of cognitive impairment in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer's disease add to a body of work suggesting that butyrylcholinesterase is present in key brain areas and may influence the maturation of plaques in Alzheimer's disease. These accumulating data suggest that butyrylcholinesterase contributes to disease progression in people with dementia, which may be particularly important in individuals with more severe dementia as butyrylcholinesterase activity increases with disease development. It is a priority for future clinical trials to determine whether agents which inhibit butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase have a greater clinical efficacy.

Real-life effectiveness and tolerability of the rivastigmine transdermal patch in patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease: the EMBRACE study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the real-life effectiveness and tolerability of the rivastigmine transdermal patch in patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD) in Canada.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Eighteen-month observational, prospective, multi-center, open-label study conducted on AD patients with Standardized Mini-Mental State Examination (SMMSE) score of 10-26 and Global Deterioration Scale (GDS) score of 4-6. Patients were treated with the rivastigmine transdermal patch (Exelon patch*) 5 cm² (4.6 mg/24 hours) or 10 cm² (9.5 mg/24 hours), once daily.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary outcome was change in SMMSE from baseline to 18 months. Secondary outcomes included change in SMMSE at 6 and 12 months and change in GDS, Assessment of Patient Ability (APA-C), Overall Patient Assessment Rating (OPAR), caregiver-reported compliance and treatment satisfaction at 6, 12, and 18 months.

RESULTS

Among the 1204 patients enrolled, 969 were included in the ITT analysis. Mean (SD) age was 80.2 (8.00) years, disease duration was 0.6 (1.26) years, 62.0% of patients were women, 80.4% were living in the community, and 69.3% were treatment naïve. Mean (SD) baseline SMMSE and GDS scores were 21.8 (3.98) and 4.2 (0.61), respectively. Over 18 months of treatment there were no clinically significant changes in SMMSE and GDS. The majority of patients showed improvement or no change in GDS, APA-C and OPAR over 18 months. The proportion with reported improvement in GDS, APA-C and OPAR was higher than the proportion that deteriorated. Compliance improved from baseline to 18 months and for 88.2% of patients caregivers preferred the transdermal patch to oral medications.

CONCLUSIONS

The rivastigmine transdermal patch is effective in maintaining cognitive function over 18 months of treatment in patients with mild-to-moderate AD. The safety profile was comparable to the data in the Canadian product monograph. Lack of a comparator group is a potential limitation of the study.

Butyrylcholinesterase and the cholinergic system

The cholinergic system plays important roles in neurotransmission in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. The cholinergic neurotransmitter acetylcholine is synthesized by choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and its action terminated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). The predominance of AChE has focused much attention on understanding the relationship of this enzyme to ChAT-positive cholinergic neurons. However, there is ample evidence that BuChE also plays an important role in cholinergic regulation. To elucidate the relationship of BuChE to neural elements that are producing acetylcholine, the distribution of this enzyme was compared to that of ChAT in the mouse CNS. Brain tissues from 129S1/SvImJ mice were stained for BuChE and ChAT using histochemical, immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent techniques. Both BuChE and ChAT were found in neural elements throughout the CNS. BuChE staining with histochemistry and immunohistochemistry produced the same distribution of labeling throughout the brain and spinal cord. Immunofluorescent double labeling demonstrated that many nuclei in the medulla oblongata, as well as regions of the spinal cord, had neurons that contained both BuChE and ChAT. BuChE-positive neurons without ChAT were found in close proximity with ChAT-positive neuropil in areas such as the thalamus and amygdala. BuChE-positive neuropil was also found closely associated with ChAT-positive neurons, particularly in tegmental nuclei of the pons. These observations provide further neuroanatomical evidence of a role for BuChE in the regulation of acetylcholine levels in the CNS.

Butyrylcholinesterase radioligands to image Alzheimer's disease brain

Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) is found to have a brain distribution pattern that is distinct from that of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Neurons containing BuChE are particularly located in the amygdala, hippocampal formation and the thalamus, structures involved in the normal functions of cognition and behavior that typically become compromised in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Progress of this disease is thought to result, at least in part, from the accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain. These structures characteristically become associated with cholinesterase activity, and are major determinants of AD diagnosis post-mortem. Early definitive AD diagnosis in the living brain could greatly facilitate specific timely treatment of the disorder and the search for novel drugs to preempt progress of this disease. Radioligands have been developed to detect deposition of Aβ plaques in the brain; however, since many cognitively normal individuals also exhibit Aβ plaque deposition, this approach has inherent disadvantages for definitive AD diagnosis during life. The association of BuChE with Aβ plaques appears to be a characteristic of AD. This has prompted the search for radioligands that target BuChE in association with Aβ plaques that accumulate in cortical grey matter, a region normally with very little of this enzyme activity. A number of BuChE radioligands have been synthesized and preliminary testing indicates that some such radioligands enter the brain and accumulate in regions known to contain BuChE. Radioligands targeting unusual BuChE activity in the brain may represent a means for early diagnosis and treatment monitoring of AD.

Effect of different oximes on rat and human cholinesterases inhibited by methamidophos: a comparative in vitro and in silico study

Methamidophos is one of the most toxic organophosphorus (OP) compounds. It acts via phosphorylation of a serine residue in the active site of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), leading to enzyme inactivation. Different oximes have been developed to reverse this inhibition. Thus, our work aimed to test the protective or reactivation capability of pralidoxime and obidoxime, as well as two new oximes synthesised in our laboratory, on human and rat cholinesterases inhibited by methamidophos. In addition, we performed molecular docking studies in non-aged methamidophos-inhibited AChE to understand the mechanisms involved. Our results suggested that pralidoxime protected and reactivated methamidophos-inhibited rat brain AChE. Regarding human erythrocyte AChE, all oximes tested protected and reactivated the enzyme, with the best reactivation index observed at the concentration of 50 μM. Concerning BChE, butane-2,3-dionethiosemicarbazone oxime (oxime 1) was able to protect and reactivate the methamidophos-inhibited BChE by 45% at 50 μM, whereas 2(3-(phenylhydrazono)butan-2-one oxime (oxime 2) reactivated 28% of BChE activity at 100 μM. The two classical oximes failed to reactivate BChE. The molecular docking study demonstrated that pralidoxime appears to be better positioned in the active site to attack the O-P moiety of the inhibited enzyme, being near the oxyanion hole, whereas our new oximes were stably positioned in the active site in a manner similar to that of obidoxime. In conclusion, our work demonstrated that the newly synthesised oximes were able to reactivate not only human erythrocyte AChE but also human plasma BChE, which could represent an advantage in the treatment of OP compounds poisoning.

Why has butyrylcholinesterase been retained? Structural and functional diversification in a duplicated gene

While acetylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.7) has a clearly defined role in neurotransmission, the functions of its sister enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.8) are more obscure. Numerous mutations, many inactivating, are observed in the human butyrylcholinesterase gene, and the butyrylcholinesterase knockout mouse has an essentially normal phenotype, suggesting that the enzyme may be redundant. Yet the gene has survived for many millions of years since the duplication of an ancestral acetylcholinesterase early in vertebrate evolution. In this paper, we ask the questions: why has butyrylcholinesterase been retained, and why are inactivating mutations apparently tolerated? Butyrylcholinesterase has diverged both structurally and in terms of tissue and cellular expression patterns from acetylcholinesterase. Butyrylcholinesterase-like activity and enzymes have arisen a number of times in the animal kingdom, suggesting the usefulness of such enzymes. Analysis of the published literature suggests that butyrylcholinesterase has specific roles in detoxification as well as in neurotransmission, both in the brain, where it appears to control certain areas and functions, and in the neuromuscular junction, where its function appears to complement that of acetylcholinesterase. An analysis of the mutations in human butyrylcholinesterase and their relation to the enzyme's structure is shown. In conclusion, it appears that the structure of butyrylcholinesterase's catalytic apparatus is a compromise between the apparently conflicting selective demands of a more generalised detoxifier and the necessity for maintaining high catalytic efficiency. It is also possible that the tolerance of mutation in human butyrylcholinesterase is a consequence of the detoxification function. Butyrylcholinesterase appears to be a good example of a gene that has survived by subfunctionalisation.

Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of piperidinyl and pyrrolidinyl iodobenzoates as imaging agents for butyrylcholinesterase

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to synthesize and evaluate specific agents for molecular imaging of butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), known to be associated with neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, these agents were tested in a normal rat model. The distribution of radiolabel was compared with known BuChE histochemical distribution in the rat brain.

PROCEDURES

Iodobenzoate esters were synthesized and tested, through spectrophotometric analysis, as specific substrates for BuChE. These compounds were converted to the corresponding (123)I esters from tributyltin intermediates and purified for studies in the rat model. Whole body dynamic scintigraphic images were obtained for biodistribution studies. Autoradiograms of brain sections were obtained and compared to histochemical distribution of the enzyme in this model system.

RESULTS

The three iodobenzoate esters studied were specific substrates for BuChE. Whole body biodistribution studies with (123)I-labeled compounds showed rapid disappearance from the body while radioactivity was retained in the head region. Brain section autoradiography of animals injected with these labeled compounds indicated that most areas known to contain BuChE corresponded to areas of radioactivity accumulation.

CONCLUSION

BuChE-specific radiolabeled iodobenzoates enter the brain and, in general, label areas known to exhibit BuChE activity in histochemical studies. Such molecules may represent a new direction for the development of agents for the molecular imaging of BuChE in the living brain, especially in regions where BuChE-containing neuropathological structures appear in AD.

Butyrylcholinesterase genotype and gender influence Alzheimer's disease phenotype

Retrospective data are presented to support a spectrum of early Alzheimer's disease (AD) along a continuum defined by gender and genotype. The putative neurodegenerative mechanisms driving distinct phenotypes at each end of the spectrum are glial hypoactivity associated with early failure of synaptic cholinergic neurotransmission and glial overactivation associated with loss of neural network connectivity due to accelerated age-related breakdown of myelin. In early AD, male butyrylcholinesterase K-variant carriers with one or two apolipoprotein ɛ4 alleles have prominent medial temporal atrophy, synaptic failure, cognitive decline, and accumulation of aggregated beta-amyloid peptide. Increasing synaptic acetylcholine in damaged but still functional cholinergic synapses improves cognitive symptoms, whereas increasing the ability of glia to support synapses and to clear beta-amyloid peptide might be disease-modifying. Conversely, chronic glial overactivation can also drive degenerative processes and in butyrylcholinesterase K-variant negative females generalized glial overactivation may be the main driver from mild cognitive impairment to AD. Females are more likely than males to have accelerated age-related myelin breakdown, more widespread white matter loss, loss of neural network connectivity, whole brain atrophy, and functional decline. Increasing extracellular acetylcholine levels blocks glial activation, reduces myelin loss and damage to neural network connectivity, and is disease-modifying. Between extremes characterized by gender, genotype, and age, pathophysiology may be mixed and this spectrum may explain much of the heterogeneity of amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Preservation of the functional integrity of the neural network may be an important component of strengthening cognitive reserve and significantly delaying the onset and progression of dementia, particularly in females. Prospective confirmation of these hypotheses is required. Implications for future research and therapeutic opportunities are discussed.