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Schäfer L, Sorokowska A, Weidner K, Sauter J, Schmidt AH, Croy I. Body odours as putative chemosignals in the father-child relationship: New insights on paternal olfactory kin recognition and preference from infancy to adolescence. Physiol Behav 2024; 278:114505. [PMID: 38432443 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Children's body odours are effective chemical cues in the parent-child relationship. Mothers can recognize the odour of their child and prefer this odour over that of unfamiliar children. This effect is mediated by genetic similarity and developmental stage and is therefore suited to promote parental care at pre-pubertal stage, while facilitating incest avoidance at (post-)pubertal stage. The present study tested whether similar mechanisms apply to fathers. Therefore n = 56 fathers evaluated body odour samples of their own and of unfamiliar children in varying genetic and developmental stages. Genetic status was determined by human leucocyte antigen (HLA) profiling, developmental status by standardized assessment of pubertal status and steroid hormone concentration (estradiol, testosterone). Similar to mothers, fathers identified their own child's body odour above chance and preferred that odour. The paternal preference did not relate to HLA similarity but decreased with increasing age of the child. The decline was associated with higher pubertal stages in daughters only, which supports the hypothesis of odour-mediated incest prevention in opposite-sex parent-child dyads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Schäfer
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; Smell and Taste Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, pl. Dawida 1, 50-527, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Kerstin Weidner
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Alexander H Schmidt
- DKMS, Kressbach 1, 72072 Tübingen, Germany; DKMS Life Science Lab, St. Petersburger Straße 2, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ilona Croy
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; Institute of Psycholgy, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany; German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Site Jena-Magdeburg-Halle, Jena, Germany
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2
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Nehls S, Losse E, Enzensberger C, Frodl T, Chechko N. Time-sensitive changes in the maternal brain and their influence on mother-child attachment. Transl Psychiatry 2024; 14:84. [PMID: 38331939 PMCID: PMC10853535 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-024-02805-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy and the postpartum period are characterized by an increased neuroplasticity in the maternal brain. To explore the dynamics of postpartum changes in gray matter volume (GMV), magnetic resonance imaging was performed on 20 healthy postpartum women immediately after childbirth and at 3-week intervals for 12 postpartum weeks. The control group comprised 20 age-matched nulliparous women. The first 6 postpartum weeks (constituting the subacute postpartum period) are associated with decreasing progesterone levels and a massive restructuring in GMV, affecting the amygdala/hippocampus, the prefrontal/subgenual cortex, and the insula, which approach their sizes in nulliparous women only around weeks 3-6 postpartum. Based on the amygdala volume shortly after delivery, the maternal brain can be reliably distinguished from the nulliparous brain. Even 12 weeks after childbirth, the GMV in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and the cortical thickness of the subgenual and lateral prefrontal cortices do not reach the pre-pregnancy levels. During this period, a volume decrease is seen in the cerebellum, the thalamus, and the dorsal striatum. A less hostile behavior toward the child at 6-12 weeks postpartum is predicted by the GMV change in the amygdala, the temporal pole, the olfactory gyrus, the anterior cingulate, the thalamus and the cerebellum in the same period. In summary, the restructuring of the maternal brain follows time-dependent trajectories. The fact that the volume changes persist at 12 weeks postpartum indicates that the maternal brain does not fully revert to pre-pregnancy physiology. Postpartum neuroplasticity suggests that these changes may be particularly significant in the regions important for parenting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Nehls
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany.
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine: JARA-Institute Brain Structure Function Relationship (INM-10), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany.
| | - Elena Losse
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Thomas Frodl
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine: JARA-Institute Brain Structure Function Relationship (INM-10), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
- German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Center for Intervention and Research on Adaptive and Maladaptive Brain Circuits Underlying Mental Health (C-I-R-C), Jena-Magdeburg-Halle, Germany
| | - Natalia Chechko
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany.
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine: JARA-Institute Brain Structure Function Relationship (INM-10), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany.
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Brain and Behavior (INM-7), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany.
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3
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Wilson KM, Arquilla AM, Hussein M, Rosales-Torres KM, Chan MG, Saltzman W. Effects of reproductive status on behavioral and neural responses to isolated pup stimuli in female California mice. Behav Brain Res 2024; 457:114727. [PMID: 37871656 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
The transition to motherhood in mammals is marked by changes in females' perception of and responsiveness to sensory stimuli from infants. Our understanding of maternally induced sensory plasticity relies most heavily on studies in uniparental, promiscuous house mice and rats, which may not be representative of rodent species with different life histories. We exposed biparental, monogamous California mouse (Peromyscus californicus) mothers and ovariectomized virgin females to one of four acoustic and olfactory stimulus combinations (Control: clean cotton and white noise; Call: clean cotton and pup vocalizations; Odor: pup-scented cotton and white noise; Call + Odor: pup-scented cotton and pup vocalizations) and quantified females' behavior and Fos expression in select brain regions. Behavior did not differ between mothers and ovariectomized virgins. Among mothers, however, those exposed to the Control condition took the longest to sniff the odor stimulus, and mothers exposed to the Odor condition were quicker to sniff the odor ball compared to those in the Call condition. Behavior did not differ among ovariectomized virgins exposed to the different conditions. Fos expression differed across conditions only in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus (AHN), which responds to aversive stimuli: among mothers, the Control condition elicited the highest AHN Fos and Call + Odor elicited the lowest. Among ovariectomized virgin females, Call elicited the lowest Fos in the AHN. Thus, reproductive status in California mice alters females' behavioral responses to stimuli from pups, especially odors, and results in the inhibition of defense circuitry in response to pup stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerianne M Wilson
- Department of Biology, Pomona College, Claremont, CA, USA; Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
| | - April M Arquilla
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Manal Hussein
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Kelsey M Rosales-Torres
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - May G Chan
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Wendy Saltzman
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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Schäfer L, Croy I. An integrative review: Human chemosensory communication in the parent-child relationship. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105336. [PMID: 37527693 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Body odors serve as signals of kinship, with parents exhibiting a preference for the scent of their infants, and vice versa. The reciprocal perception of body odors can promote bonding through two mechanisms. Firstly, as an indirect pathway, through associative chemosensory learning, which leads to changes in proximity-seeking behaviors. Secondly, as a direct pathway, by eliciting the display of positive emotions, thereby reinforcing the mutual bond. Both mechanisms weaken as the child undergoes development due to changes in body odor expression and perception. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the current literature on chemosignals in the parent-child relationship, highlighting their significance in facilitating dyadic communication throughout the developmental span. Furthermore, future research perspectives are outlined to gain a better understanding of these benefits and, on the long run, derive potential interventions to strengthen parent child attachment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Schäfer
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Ilona Croy
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Germany; German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Site Jena-Magdeburg-Halle, Germany
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Attachment and Caregiving in the Mother–Infant Dyad: Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Models of their Origins in the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-76000-7_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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6
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Pereira M, Smiley KO, Lonstein JS. Parental Behavior in Rodents. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2022; 27:1-53. [PMID: 36169811 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-97762-7_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Members of the order Rodentia are among the best-studied mammals for understanding the patterns, outcomes, and biological determinants of maternal and paternal caregiving. This research has provided a wealth of information but has historically focused on just a few rodents, mostly members of the two Myomorpha families that easily breed and can be studied within a laboratory setting (including laboratory rats, mice, hamsters, voles, gerbils). It is unclear how well this small collection of animals represents the over 2000 species of extant rodents. This chapter provides an overview of the hormonal and neurobiological systems involved in parental care in rodents, with a purposeful eye on providing information known or could be gleaned about parenting in various less-traditional members of Rodentia. We conclude from this analysis that the few commonly studied rodents are not necessarily even representative of the highly diverse members of Myomorpha, let alone other rodent suborders, and that additional laboratory and field studies of members of this order more broadly would surely provide invaluable information toward revealing a more representative picture of the rich diversity in rodent parenting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Pereira
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Kristina O Smiley
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology & Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Joseph S Lonstein
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.
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Chechko N, Dukart J, Tchaikovski S, Enzensberger C, Neuner I, Stickel S. The Expectant Brain-Pregnancy Leads to Changes in Brain Morphology in the Early Postpartum Period. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:4025-4038. [PMID: 34942007 PMCID: PMC9476604 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that pregnancy may have a significant impact on the maternal brain, causing changes in its structure. To investigate the patterns of these changes, we compared nulliparous women (n = 40) with a group of primiparous women (n = 40) and multiparous mothers (n = 37) within 1–4 days postpartum, using voxel-based and surface-based morphometry (SBM). Compared with the nulliparous women, the young mothers showed decreases in gray matter volume in the bilateral hippocampus/amygdala, the orbitofrontal/subgenual prefrontal area, the right superior temporal gyrus and insula, and the cerebellum. These pregnancy-related changes in brain structure did not predict the quality of mother–infant attachment at either 3 or 12 weeks postpartum nor were they more pronounced among the multiparous women. SBM analyses showed significant cortical thinning especially in the frontal and parietal cortices, with the parietal cortical thinning likely potentiated by multiple pregnancies. We conclude that, compared with the brain of nulliparous women, the maternal brain shows widespread morphological changes shortly after childbirth. Also, the experience of pregnancy alone may not be the underlying cause of the adaptations for mothering. As regards the exact biological function of the changes in brain morphology, longitudinal research will be needed to draw any definitive conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Chechko
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen 52074, Germany.,Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, JARA-Institute Brain Structure Function Relationship (INM 10), Research Center Jülich, Jülich 52428, Germany.,Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Brain & Behavior (INM-7), Research Center Jülich, Jülich 52428, Germany
| | - Jürgen Dukart
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Brain & Behavior (INM-7), Research Center Jülich, Jülich 52428, Germany.,Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Svetlana Tchaikovski
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Christian Enzensberger
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Irene Neuner
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen 52074, Germany.,Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, JARA-Institute Brain Structure Function Relationship (INM 10), Research Center Jülich, Jülich 52428, Germany
| | - Susanne Stickel
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen 52074, Germany.,Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, JARA-Institute Brain Structure Function Relationship (INM 10), Research Center Jülich, Jülich 52428, Germany
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8
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Schäfer L, Sorokowska A, Sauter J, Schmidt AH, Croy I. Body odours as a chemosignal in the mother-child relationship: new insights based on an human leucocyte antigen-genotyped family cohort. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190266. [PMID: 32306871 PMCID: PMC7209942 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mothers are able to identify the body odour (BO) of their own child and prefer this smell above other BOs. It has hence been assumed that the infantile BO functions as a chemosignal promoting targeted parental care. We tested this hypothesis and examined whether children's BOs signal genetic similarity and developmental status to mothers. In addition, we assessed whether BOs facilitate inbreeding avoidance (Westermarck effect). In a cross-sectional design, N = 164 mothers participated with their biological children (N = 226 children, aged 0-18 years) and evaluated BO probes of their own and four other, sex-matched children. Those varied in age and in genetic similarity, which was assessed by human leucocyte antigen profiling. The study showed not only that mothers identified and preferred their own child's BO, but also that genetic similarity and developmental status are transcribed in BOs. Accordingly, maternal preference of their own child's odour changes throughout development. Our data partly supported the Westermarck effect: mothers' preference of pubertal boys' BOs was negatively related to testosterone for the own son, but not for unfamiliar children. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Olfactory communication in humans'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Schäfer
- Department of Psychosomatics, Technische Universität, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Department of Psychosomatics, Technische Universität, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Smell and Taste Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, pl. Dawida 1, 50-527, Wroclaw, Poland
| | | | - Alexander H. Schmidt
- DKMS, Kressbach 1, 72072 Tübingen, Germany
- DKMS Life Science Lab, St. Petersburger Straße 2, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ilona Croy
- Department of Psychosomatics, Technische Universität, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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Schäfer L, Sorokowska A, Weidner K, Croy I. Children's Body Odors: Hints to the Development Status. Front Psychol 2020; 11:320. [PMID: 32194481 PMCID: PMC7064733 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Mothers can recognize their own children by body odor. Besides signaling familiarity, children's body odors may provide other information relevant to maternal caregiving behavior, such as the child's developmental status. Thus, we explored whether mothers are able to classify body odors on pre- vs. postpubertal status above chance levels. In total, 164 mothers were presented with body odor samples of their own and four unfamiliar, sex-matched children who varied in age (range 0-18 years). Pubertal status was measured by (a) determining the child's steroid hormone level and (b) parental assessment of the child's developmental stage using the Pubertal Development Scale. Mothers classified developmental status with an accuracy of about 64%. Maternal assessments were biased toward pre-puberty. Classification was predicted by perceptual evaluation of the body odor (i.e. intensity and pleasantness) and by the child's developmental stage, but not by hormones. In specific, mothers with pubertal-aged children classified body odors using the child's developmental status, whereas mothers with younger children only classified body odors using perceptual information (i.e. intensity and pleasantness). Our data suggests that body odors convey developmental cues, but how this developmental information is manifested in body odor remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Schäfer
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Kerstin Weidner
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ilona Croy
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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10
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Uebi T, Hariyama T, Suzuki K, Kanayama N, Nagata Y, Ayabe-Kanamura S, Yanase S, Ohtsubo Y, Ozaki M. Sampling, identification and sensory evaluation of odors of a newborn baby's head and amniotic fluid. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12759. [PMID: 31485001 PMCID: PMC6726625 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49137-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
For baby odor analyses, noninvasive, stress-free sample collection is important. Using a simple method, we succeeded in obtaining fresh odors from the head of five newborn babies. These odors were chemically analyzed by two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC × GC-MS), and compared with each other or with the odor of amniotic fluid from the baby's mother. We identified 31 chemical components of the volatile odors from neonate heads and 21 from amniotic fluid. Although 15 of these components were common to both sources, there was an apparent difference in the GC × GC patterns between the head and amniotic fluid odors, so the neonate head odor might be individually distinct immediately after birth. Therefore, we made artificial mixtures of the major odor components of the neonate head and maternal amniotic fluid, and used psychological tests to examine whether or not these odors could be distinguished from each other. Our data show that the artificial odor of a neonate head could be distinguished from that of amniotic fluid, and that the odors of artificial head odor mixtures could be correctly discriminated for neonates within an hour after birth and at 2 or 3 days of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Uebi
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan.
| | - Takahiko Hariyama
- Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Institute for NanoSuit Research, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Kazunao Suzuki
- Perinatal Medical Center, Hamamatsu University Hospital, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Naohiro Kanayama
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Nagata
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan
| | - Saho Ayabe-Kanamura
- Division of Psychology, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Shihoko Yanase
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Yohsuke Ohtsubo
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Humanities, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Mamiko Ozaki
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
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Lang DLY, Bamshad M, Dorcely R. Pattern of fos activation in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of male prairie vole's (Microtus ochrogaster) in response to infant-related stimuli. Brain Res 2019; 1714:119-125. [PMID: 30822390 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Prairie voles are socially monogamous mammals that form pair bonds and display paternal care. This study was focused on the male prairie vole's neuronal responses to infant-related odors. Using the fos protein as a measure of neuronal activation, we examined the brain responses of males to infant-related odors. Prior to testing, the subjects had cohabited for two weeks with either a male sibling (Male-Cohabited) or an unrelated female (Female-Cohabited). Given that paternal behavior of male prairie voles is enhanced after two-weeks of cohabitation with a mate, we hypothesized that fos activation in brain regions involved in caring must be increased in response to infants or their odors but not in response to water or sub-adult odors. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed the pattern of fos expression in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BNST) two hours after Male-Cohabited and Female-Cohabited males were exposed to either two live infants or to odors of infants, sub-adults or water. Results showed differences in fos expression within the VTA between Male-Cohabited and Female-Cohabited subjects that were exposed to infants and infant odors. The type of cohabitation had no effect on fos expression within the BNST, but the pattern of fos activation in this region differed by the type of odor to which the subjects were exposed. Together, the data indicate that female sensory cues during post-mating cohabitation may be processed within the VTA to direct the male prairie vole's responses towards infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damaris-Lois Yamoah Lang
- Department of Natural Sciences, The City University Of New York - Hostos CC, Grand Concourse, Bronx, NY 10451, United States.
| | - Maryam Bamshad
- Department of Biological Sciences, The City University Of New York - Lehman College, 250 Bedford Park Blvd, Bronx, NY 10468, United States.
| | - Reginald Dorcely
- Department of Mathematics, The City University Of New York - Hostos CC, Grand Concourse, Bronx, NY 10451, United States.
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12
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Widström A, Brimdyr K, Svensson K, Cadwell K, Nissen E. Skin-to-skin contact the first hour after birth, underlying implications and clinical practice. Acta Paediatr 2019; 108:1192-1204. [PMID: 30762247 PMCID: PMC6949952 DOI: 10.1111/apa.14754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
AIM This paper integrates clinical expertise to earlier research about the behaviours of the healthy, alert, full-term infant placed skin-to-skin with the mother during the first hour after birth following a noninstrumental vaginal birth. METHOD This state-of-the-art article forms a link within the knowledge-to-action cycle, integrating clinical observations and practice with evidence-based findings to guide clinicians in their work to implement safe uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact the first hours after birth. RESULTS Strong scientific research exists about the importance of skin-to-skin in the first hour after birth. This unique time for both mother and infant, individually and in relation to each other, provides vital advantages to short- and long-term health, regulation and bonding. However, worldwide, clinical practice lags. A deeper understanding of the implications for clinical practice, through review of the scientific research, has been integrated with enhanced understanding of the infant's instinctive behaviour and maternal responses while in skin-to-skin contact. CONCLUSION The first hour after birth is a sensitive period for both the infant and the mother. Through an enhanced understanding of the newborn infant's instinctive behaviour, practical, evidence-informed suggestions strive to overcome barriers and facilitate enablers of knowledge translation. This time must be protected by evidence-based routines of staff.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kristin Svensson
- Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
- Karolinska University HospitalKarolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
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13
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De Carli P, Costantini I, Sessa P, Visentin S, Pearson RM, Simonelli A. The expectant social mind: A systematic review of face processing during pregnancy and the effect of depression and anxiety. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 102:153-171. [PMID: 31055013 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Pregnancy carries enormous changes in the psychological and neurophysiological domains. It has been suggested that pregnant women undergo a cognitive reorganization aimed at increasing the salience of social stimuli (i.e., the tendency of social cues to capture observer's attention, so that their processing results prioritized). The goal of the present work was to systematically review the empirical evidence of a change in face processing during pregnancy. Moreover, we explored whether face processing is associated with antenatal depression and anxiety and the extent to which this is part of a potential mechanism to explain detrimental effects of maternal psychopathology on infant outcomes. We identified 19 relevant studies and discussed them based on their methodological qualities. The results of the review suggest that even though it is not possible to draw firm conclusions, pregnancy is likely to be a plasticity window for face processing at the behavioral and neural levels. Evidence confirms the detrimental effect of depression and anxiety on face processing during pregnancy. Clinical implications for parenting interventions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro De Carli
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova (PD), Italy.
| | - Ilaria Costantini
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova (PD), Italy; Centre for Academic Mental Health, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, Bristol BS14 8TF, United Kingdom.
| | - Paola Sessa
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova (PD), Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padua, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova (PD), Italy.
| | - Silvia Visentin
- Department of Woman and Child's Health, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani, 3, 35128 Padova (PD), Italy.
| | - Rebecca M Pearson
- Centre for Academic Mental Health, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, Bristol BS14 8TF, United Kingdom.
| | - Alessandra Simonelli
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia, 8, 35131 Padova (PD), Italy.
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Mother-child bonding is associated with the maternal perception of the child's body odor. Physiol Behav 2018; 198:151-157. [PMID: 30261171 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Mothers can recognize the odor of their baby and typically adore this odor. In line with this observation, infant body odors activate reward-related brain areas in the mothers. In some mother-child-dyads however, the mutual bond is impaired and mothers have trouble engaging in interaction with their child. We aimed to examine how mothers with bonding difficulties perceive their child's body odor. In total, 75 mothers of babies aged 0-12 months were examined: Twenty-five of those were recruited in a psychosomatic day hospital ward, which is specialized for mother-child bonding disorders. Fifty age-matched healthy women and their babies served as controls. Body odor samples of each baby were collected from bodysuits in a highly standardized procedure. Thereafter, each mother rated the samples of her own and two other infants in a blind and randomized design. In addition, general olfactory function in terms of threshold and identification ability was tested and the mother reported the bonding to her baby in a standardized questionnaire. Healthy mothers showed a clear preference of their own compared to odors of other infant's, while mothers with bonding difficulties did not. Furthermore, the degree of preference was negatively correlated to self-reported bonding difficulties. Mothers with bonding difficulties could not identify their own infant's odor above chance, while control mothers could. Both groups did not differ in general olfactory function. We assume that reduced close body contact and interaction time associated with bonding difficulties may lead to reduced exposure and hinder the recognition of the infantile body odor. Within a vicious cycle, a reduced hedonic experience smelling their own baby may prevent women from deliberately approaching the baby. Thus, the positive and bond-building consequences of bodily and sensory interaction cannot unfold. As the baby's odor is normally perceived as very pleasant and rewarding, the conscious perception of the infantile body odor may be an additive therapeutic approach for mothers with bonding difficulties.
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15
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Olazábal DE. Role of oxytocin in parental behaviour. J Neuroendocrinol 2018; 30:e12594. [PMID: 29603440 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Both animal and human studies have provided conclusive evidence that oxytocin (OXT) acts in the brain (eg, medial preoptic area, ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens) to promote parental behaviour under different reproductive and physiological conditions. OXT appears to accelerate and strengthen the neural process that makes newborns attractive or rewarding. Furthermore, OXT reduces stress/anxiety and might improve mood and well being, resulting in indirect benefits for parents. However, OXT also plays a role in the development of species reproductive and social strategies, making some species or individuals more prone to display caring activities in nonreproductive contexts. There are important differences in the development of the OXT system and its regulation by gonadal hormones that can make individuals or species very different. Those intra- and interspecific differences in the OXT system have been associated with differences in parental behaviour. For example, differences in OXT levels in body fluids and genetic variants for the OXT and OXT receptor genes have been associated with variability in parental mood and behaviour in humans. Thus, OXT has received much attention as a potential therapeutic agent for affective, emotional and behavioural problems. Despite many preliminary studies indicating promising findings, several unknown aspects of the OXT system remain to be addressed before we can achieve a complete understanding of its function in the brain. The enormous interest that this area of study has attracted in the last decade will likely continually contribute to advancing our understanding of the role of OXT in parental behaviour and other behavioural and physiological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Olazábal
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República Oriental del Uruguay (UdelaR), Montevideo, Uruguay
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Croy I, Frackowiak T, Hummel T, Sorokowska A. Babies Smell Wonderful to Their Parents, Teenagers Do Not: an Exploratory Questionnaire Study on Children's Age and Personal Odor Ratings in a Polish Sample. CHEMOSENS PERCEPT 2017; 10:81-87. [PMID: 28932343 PMCID: PMC5574933 DOI: 10.1007/s12078-017-9230-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Infant body odor is subjectively pleasant to parents and activates reward areas in the brain. Hence, body odor perception might contribute to parental bonding. However, it is unknown whether the perceived pleasantness of children's body odor varies over the course of a child's development. METHODS Two hundred and thirty-five parents (M = 36.9 years, SD = 7.3) were asked to assess the personal odor pleasantness of their children (N = 367; M = 9.3 years, SD = 6.4). RESULTS Odor pleasantness was found to decrease as a function of children's age. Neither sex of the parent nor sex of the child contributed significantly to this effect. CONCLUSIONS We propose that the effect of age-related changes on personal odor pleasantness reflects olfactory modulation of parental-child relationships. IMPLICATIONS Our study suggests that perception of young children's personal odor as pleasant may contribute to bonding and thereby caretaking, which is needed to a lesser degree after puberty than before.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Croy
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, TU Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Tomasz Frackowiak
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, ul. Dawida 1, 50-527 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Thomas Hummel
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Department of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, TU Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, ul. Dawida 1, 50-527 Wroclaw, Poland
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Nelson EE. Learning through the ages: How the brain adapts to the social world across development. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2017.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Pereira M. Structural and Functional Plasticity in the Maternal Brain Circuitry. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 2017; 2016:23-46. [PMID: 27589496 DOI: 10.1002/cad.20163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Parenting recruits a distributed network of brain structures (and neuromodulators) that coordinates caregiving responses attuned to the young's affect, needs, and developmental stage. Many of these structures and connections undergo significant structural and functional plasticity, mediated by the interplay between maternal hormones and social experience while the reciprocal relationship between the mother and her infant forms and develops. These alterations account for the remarkable behavioral plasticity of mothers. This review will examine the molecular and neurobiological modulation and plasticity through which parenting develops and adjusts in new mothers, primarily discussing recent findings in nonhuman animals. A better understanding of how parenting impacts the brain at the molecular, cellular, systems/network, and behavioral levels is likely to significantly contribute to novel strategies for treating postpartum neuropsychiatric disorders in new mothers, and critical for both the mother's physiological and mental health and the development and well-being of her young.
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Belnoue L, Malvaut S, Ladevèze E, Abrous DN, Koehl M. Plasticity in the olfactory bulb of the maternal mouse is prevented by gestational stress. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37615. [PMID: 27886228 PMCID: PMC5122868 DOI: 10.1038/srep37615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Maternal stress is associated with an altered mother-infant relationship that endangers offspring development, leading to emotional/behavioral problems. However, little research has investigated the stress-induced alterations of the maternal brain that could underlie such a disruption of mother-infant bonding. Olfactory cues play an extensive role in the coordination of mother-infant interactions, suggesting that motherhood may be associated to enhanced olfactory performances, and that this effect may be abolished by maternal stress. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed the impact of motherhood under normal conditions or after gestational stress on olfactory functions in C57BL/6 J mice. We report that gestational stress alters maternal behavior and prevents both mothers' ability to discriminate pup odors and motherhood-induced enhancement in odor memory. We investigated adult bulbar neurogenesis as a potential mechanism of the enhanced olfactory function in mothers and found that motherhood was associated with an increased complexity of the dendritic tree of newborn neurons. This motherhood-evoked remodeling was totally prevented by gestational stress. Altogether, our results may thus provide insight into the neural changes that could contribute to altered maternal behavior in stressed mothers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Belnoue
- INSERM U1215, Magendie Neurocenter, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology group, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux-33077, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux-33077, France
| | - Sarah Malvaut
- INSERM U1215, Magendie Neurocenter, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology group, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux-33077, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux-33077, France
| | - Elodie Ladevèze
- INSERM U1215, Magendie Neurocenter, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology group, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux-33077, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux-33077, France
| | - Djoher Nora Abrous
- INSERM U1215, Magendie Neurocenter, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology group, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux-33077, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux-33077, France
| | - Muriel Koehl
- INSERM U1215, Magendie Neurocenter, Neurogenesis and Pathophysiology group, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux-33077, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux-33077, France
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Okamoto M, Shirasu M, Fujita R, Hirasawa Y, Touhara K. Child Odors and Parenting: A Survey Examination of the Role of Odor in Child-Rearing. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154392. [PMID: 27138751 PMCID: PMC4854394 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Parental caregiving is critical for the survival of our young and continuation of our species. In humans, visual and auditory signals from offspring have been shown to be potent facilitators of parenting. However, whether odors emitted by our young also influence human parenting remains unclear. To explore this, we conducted a series of questionnaire surveys targeting parents with children under 6 years old. First, we collected episodes on experiencing odors/sniffing various parts of a child’s body (n = 507). The prevalence of experiencing events described in those episodes was examined in a separate survey (n = 384). Based on those results, the Child Odor in Parenting scale (COPs) was developed, and subsequently used in the main survey (n = 888). We found COPs to have adequate content validity, concurrent validity, and reliability. Responses to the COPs demonstrated that parents, especially mothers with infants, are aware of odors from their offspring, and actively seek them in daily child-rearing. The factor structure and content of the COPs items indicated that child odors have both affective and instrumental roles. Affective experiences induce loving feeling and affectionate sniffing, while instrumental experiences pertain to specific hygienic needs. The head was the most frequent source of affective experiences, and the child’s bottom of instrumental. Each was experienced by more than 90% of the mothers with a child below 1 year of age. Affective experiences significantly declined as the child grew older, possibly associated with the decline of physical proximity between parents and child. This age-related decline was not prominent for instrumental experiences, except for the bottom, which significantly declined after 3 years of age. The present findings suggest that child odors play roles in human parenting, and that their nature and significance change during the course of a child’s development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masako Okamoto
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- ERATO Touhara Chemosensory Signal Project, JST, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Mika Shirasu
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- ERATO Touhara Chemosensory Signal Project, JST, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
| | - Rei Fujita
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- ERATO Touhara Chemosensory Signal Project, JST, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- Technical Research Institute, Research & Development Center, T. Hasegawa Co., Ltd, Kanagawa, 211–0022, Japan
| | - Yukei Hirasawa
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- ERATO Touhara Chemosensory Signal Project, JST, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
| | - Kazushige Touhara
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
- ERATO Touhara Chemosensory Signal Project, JST, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113–8657, Japan
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21
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Pereira M, Ferreira A. Neuroanatomical and neurochemical basis of parenting: Dynamic coordination of motivational, affective and cognitive processes. Horm Behav 2016; 77:72-85. [PMID: 26296592 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Parental Care". Becoming a parent is arguably the most profound transforming experience in life. It is also inherently very emotionally and physically demanding, such that the reciprocal interaction with the young changes the brain and behavior of the parents. In this review, we examine the neurobiological mechanisms of parenting primarily discussing recent research findings in rodents and primates, especially humans. We argue that it is essential to consider parenting within a conceptual framework that recognizes the dynamics of the reciprocal mother-young relationship, including both the complexity and neuroplasticity of its underlying mechanisms. Converging research suggests that the concerted activity of a distributed network of subcortical and cortical brain structures regulates different key aspects of parenting, including the sensory analysis of infant stimuli as well as motivational, affective and cognitive processes. The interplay among these processes depends on the action of various neurotransmitters and hormones that modulate the timely and coordinated execution of caregiving responses of the maternal circuitry exquisitely attuned to the young's affect, needs and developmental stage. We conclude with a summary and a set of questions that may guide future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Pereira
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA.
| | - Annabel Ferreira
- Sección Fisiología y Nutrición, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
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22
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Reproductive experiential regulation of cognitive and emotional resilience. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 58:92-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Lonstein JS, Lévy F, Fleming AS. Common and divergent psychobiological mechanisms underlying maternal behaviors in non-human and human mammals. Horm Behav 2015; 73:156-85. [PMID: 26122301 PMCID: PMC4546863 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Maternal interactions with young occupy most of the reproductive period for female mammals and are absolutely essential for offspring survival and development. The hormonal, sensory, reward-related, emotional, cognitive and neurobiological regulators of maternal caregiving behaviors have been well studied in numerous subprimate mammalian species, and some of the importance of this body of work is thought to be its relevance for understanding similar controls in humans. We here review many of the important biopsychological influences on maternal behaviors in the two best studied non-human animals, laboratory rats and sheep, and directly examine how the conceptual framework established by some of the major discoveries in these animal "models" do or do not hold for our understanding of human mothering. We also explore some of the limits for extrapolating from non-human animals to humans. We conclude that there are many similarities between non-human and human mothers in the biological and psychological factors influencing their early maternal behavior and that many of the differences are due to species-characteristic features related to the role of hormones, the relative importance of each sensory system, flexibility in what behaviors are exhibited, the presence or absence of language, and the complexity of cortical function influencing caregiving behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph S Lonstein
- Neuroscience Program, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Psychology, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| | - Frédéric Lévy
- Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, INRA-CNRS-Université de Tours IFCE, Nouzilly 37380, France.
| | - Alison S Fleming
- Fraser Mustard Institute for Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada.
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Corona R, Lévy F. Chemical olfactory signals and parenthood in mammals. Horm Behav 2015; 68:77-90. [PMID: 25038290 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Chemosignals and Reproduction". In mammalian species, odor cues emitted by the newborn are essential to establish maternal behavior at parturition and coordinate early mother-infant interactions. Offspring odors become potent attractive stimuli at parturition promoting the contact with the young to ensure that normal maternal care develops. In some species odors provide a basis for individual recognition of the offspring and highly specialized neural mechanisms for learning the infant signals have evolved. Both the main and the accessory olfactory systems are involved in the onset of maternal care, but only the former contributes to individual odor discrimination of the young. Electrophysiological and neurochemical changes occur in the main olfactory bulb leading to a coding of the olfactory signature of the familiar young. Olfactory neurogenesis could also contribute to motherhood and associated learning. Parturition and interactions with the young influence neurogenesis and some evidence indicates a functional link between olfactory neurogenesis and maternal behavior. Although a simple compound has been found which regulates anogenital licking in the rat, studies identifying the chemical nature of these odors are lacking. Neonatal body odors seem to be particularly salient to human mothers who are able to identify their infant's odors. Recent studies have revealed some neural processing of these cues confirming the importance of mother-young chemical communication in our own species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Corona
- INRA, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; CNRS, UMR 7247, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; Université François Rabelais, F-37041 Tours, France; Haras Nationaux, F-37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - Frédéric Lévy
- INRA, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; CNRS, UMR 7247, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; Université François Rabelais, F-37041 Tours, France; Haras Nationaux, F-37380 Nouzilly, France.
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Affective, Cognitive, and Motivational Processes of Maternal Care. PERINATAL PROGRAMMING OF NEURODEVELOPMENT 2015; 10:199-217. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1372-5_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Both parents respond equally to infant cues in the cooperatively breeding common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus.. Anim Behav 2014; 97:95-103. [PMID: 25342858 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Although there has been great interest in the evolutionary approach to cooperative breeding species, few studies actually directly compare fathers and mothers on their motivation to parent offspring. We tested the responsiveness of common marmoset mothers and fathers to vocal and olfactory cues from their own and other infants using a two-chamber test apparatus designed to evaluate responses in the absence of competition from other caregivers within the family. We tested parentally experienced mothers and fathers living with young infants and former parents with no current offspring to address the following questions: (1) do mothers and fathers respond equally to sensory cues of infants; (2) do parents discriminate cues of their own offspring when the infants are highly dependent and when the infants are more independent; and (3) are parents responsive to both auditory and olfactory cues? Mothers and fathers reacted similarly in all tests. Parents responded equally to isolation calls from their own and unfamiliar dependent infants and there was minimal response to olfactory cues. Responses to infant vocal cues were significantly stronger when infants were dependent upon direct parental care. There was no difference in response between parents whose infants were no longer dependent and former parents with no current offspring. The results show that both parents are highly responsive to infant vocal cues when their own infants are dependent on parental care, supporting an effect of hormonal priming. However, parents only showed behavioural discrimination between vocalizations from their own and unfamiliar infants when their infants were mostly independent.
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Abstract
Parental care, including feeding and protection of young, is essential for the survival as well as mental and physical well-being of the offspring. A large variety of parental behaviors has been described across species and sexes, raising fascinating questions about how animals identify the young and how brain circuits drive and modulate parental displays in males and females. Recent studies have begun to uncover a striking antagonistic interplay between brain systems underlying parental care and infant-directed aggression in both males and females, as well as a large range of intrinsic and environmentally driven neural modulation and plasticity. Improved understanding of the neural control of parental interactions in animals should provide novel insights into the complex issue of human parental care in both health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Dulac
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Lauren A O'Connell
- FAS Center for System Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Zheng Wu
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Nishitani S, Kuwamoto S, Takahira A, Miyamura T, Shinohara K. Maternal Prefrontal Cortex Activation by Newborn Infant Odors. Chem Senses 2014; 39:195-202. [DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjt068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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Barbosa MN, Mota MTDS. Do newborn vocalizations affect the behavioral and hormonal responses of nonreproductive male common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)? Primates 2014; 55:293-302. [PMID: 24394953 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-013-0404-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Parental care in mammals is influenced by sensory stimuli from infants, such as sight and sound, and by changes in the hormone levels of caretakers. To determine the responsiveness of common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) adult males with and without previous experience in caretaking to newborn sensory cues, we exposed twelve males to infant vocalization recordings and assessed their hormonal and behavioral responses. Males were placed in the testing cage for 10 min under two conditions: (a) control condition (exposure to adult conspecific vocalization recordings), and (b) experimental condition (exposure to infant vocalization recordings). We recorded the frequency of approach towards the sound source, the time spent near it and locomotion frequency of males in the cage under both conditions. Blood samples were collected after each test for cortisol, measured by the enzyme immunoassay method. Infant vocalization affects the behavioral and hormonal responses of non-reproductive male common marmosets. All males approached and spent more time near the sound source and showed an increase in locomotion during infant vocalization exposure compared to the control condition. Successive exposure to infant vocalization increased the responsiveness in inexperienced males. Cortisol levels were significantly higher following infant vocalization exposure compared to the control condition. These findings support the assumption that sound stimuli from the newborn are critical in initiating and maintaining caretaker responsiveness and that cortisol seems to be important for alertness to sensory stimuli, modulating their motivation to interact with infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maricele Nascimento Barbosa
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Campus Universitário, Caixa Postal 1511, Natal, RN, 59078-970, Brazil.
| | - Maria Teresa da Silva Mota
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Campus Universitário, Caixa Postal 1511, Natal, RN, 59078-970, Brazil
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Banerjee SB, Liu RC. Storing maternal memories: hypothesizing an interaction of experience and estrogen on sensory cortical plasticity to learn infant cues. Front Neuroendocrinol 2013; 34:300-14. [PMID: 23916405 PMCID: PMC3788048 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Revised: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Much of the literature on maternal behavior has focused on the role of infant experience and hormones in a canonical subcortical circuit for maternal motivation and maternal memory. Although early studies demonstrated that the cerebral cortex also plays a significant role in maternal behaviors, little has been done to explore what that role may be. Recent work though has provided evidence that the cortex, particularly sensory cortices, contains correlates of sensory memories of infant cues, consistent with classical studies of experience-dependent sensory cortical plasticity in non-maternal paradigms. By reviewing the literature from both the maternal behavior and sensory cortical plasticity fields, focusing on the auditory modality, we hypothesize that maternal hormones (predominantly estrogen) may act to prime auditory cortical neurons for a longer-lasting neural trace of infant vocal cues, thereby facilitating recognition and discrimination. This couldthen more efficiently activate the subcortical circuit to elicit and sustain maternal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunayana B. Banerjee
- Department of Biology, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Robert C. Liu
- Department of Biology, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322
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Olazábal DE, Pereira M, Agrati D, Ferreira A, Fleming AS, González-Mariscal G, Lévy F, Lucion AB, Morrell JI, Numan M, Uriarte N. Flexibility and adaptation of the neural substrate that supports maternal behavior in mammals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:1875-92. [PMID: 23608126 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Maternal behavior is species-specific and expressed under different physiological conditions, and contexts. It is the result of neural processes that support different forms (e.g. postpartum, cycling sensitized and spontaneous maternal behavior) and modalities of mother-offspring interaction (e.g. maternal interaction with altricial/precocious young; selective/non-selective bond). To understand how the brain adapts to and regulates maternal behavior in different species, and physiological and social conditions we propose new neural models to explain different forms of maternal expression (e.g. sensitized and spontaneous maternal behavior) and the behavioral changes that occur across the postpartum period. We emphasize the changing role of the medial preoptic area in the neural circuitry that supports maternal behavior and the cortical regulation and adjustment of ongoing behavioral performance. Finally, we discuss how our accumulated knowledge about the psychobiology of mothering in animal models supports the validity of animal studies to guide our understanding of human mothering and to improve human welfare and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Olazábal
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Avda. Gral. Flores 2125, CP 11800, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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Gordon I, Martin C, Feldman R, Leckman JF. Oxytocin and social motivation. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2011; 1:471-93. [PMID: 21984889 PMCID: PMC3185363 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Revised: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are fundamentally social creatures who are ‘motivated’ to be with others. In this review we examine the role of oxytocin (OT) as it relates to social motivation. OT is synthesized in the brain and throughout the body, including in the heart, thymus, gastrointestinal tract, as well as reproductive organs. The distribution of the OT receptor (OTR) system in both the brain and periphery is even more far-reaching and its expression is subject to changes over the course of development. OTR expression is also sensitive to changes in the external environment and the internal somatic world. The OT system functions as an important element within a complex, developmentally sensitive biobehavioral system. Other elements include sensory inputs, the salience, reward, and threat detection pathways, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress response axis. Despite an ever expanding scientific literature, key unresolved questions remain concerning the interplay of the central and peripheral components of this complex biobehavioral system that dynamically engages the brain and the body as humans interact with social partners over the course of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilanit Gordon
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Carina Martin
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ruth Feldman
- Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Psychology Department and Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar Ilan University, Israel
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Barrett J, Fleming AS. Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 52:368-97. [PMID: 20925656 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Quality of mothering relies on the integrity of multiple physiological and behavioral systems and on two maternal factors, one proximal and one distal, that have a great impact on how a mother mothers: postpartum depression and early experiences. To mother appropriately requires the action of systems that regulate sensation, perception, affect, reward, executive function, motor output and learning. When a mother is at risk to engage in less than optimal mothering, such as when she is depressed or has experienced adversity in childhood, the function of many or all of maternal and related systems may be affected. In this paper, we will review what is currently known about the biological basis of mothering, with attention to literature on hormones but with a particular focus on recent advances in the fields of functional neuroimaging. Instead of discussing strictly 'maternal' brain imaging studies, we instead use a systems approach to survey important findings relevant to brain systems integral to and/or strongly related to the mothering experience: (a) social behavior; (b) reward and affect; (c) executive function; and (d) maternal behavior. We find that there are many commonalities in terms of the brain regions identified across these systems and, as we would expect, all are sensitive to the influence of, or function differently in the context of, depression and adverse early experience. It is likely that the similarity and cross-talk between maternal, affect and stress systems, observed behaviorally, hormonally and in the context of brain function, allows for mood disturbance and early adverse experiences to have a significant impact on the quality of mothering and the motivation to mother.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Barrett
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada.
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Ziegler TE, Peterson LJ, Sosa ME, Barnard AM. Differential endocrine responses to infant odors in common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) fathers. Horm Behav 2011; 59:265-70. [PMID: 21145893 PMCID: PMC3040271 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Revised: 11/28/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory cues can exert priming effects on many mammalian species. Paternally experienced marmosets, Callithrix jacchus, exposed to direct isolated olfactory contact with their own infant's scent show rapid decreases in testosterone levels within 20 min, whereas paternally inexperienced males do not. The following study tests whether there is a differential steroid response to exposure of infant scent from dependent infants (own and novel) and independent infants (own and novel). We examined the serum levels of estradiol, estrone, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and combined estrogens and androgens in eight male marmosets 20 min after exposure to isolated infant scent. Testosterone and androgen levels combined were significantly lower with exposure to own infant scent than a novel infant scent when the infants were at a dependent age but not at an independent age. Estrogen levels elevated significantly in response to own infant scent when the infants were at a dependent age but not at an independent age. These results suggest that marmoset fathers are more responsive to priming cues from related infants and hormonal responses from fathers are greatest when the infant is at a dependent age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni E Ziegler
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1220 Capitol Court, Madison, WI 53715, USA.
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Mileva-Seitz V, Fleming AS. How Mothers Are Born: A Psychobiological Analysis of Mothering. NATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FAMILY ISSUES 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-7361-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Canavan SV, Mayes LC, Treloar HB. Changes in maternal gene expression in olfactory circuits in the immediate postpartum period. Front Psychiatry 2011; 2:40. [PMID: 21747772 PMCID: PMC3130163 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulation of maternal behavior in the immediate postpartum period involves neural circuits in reward and homeostasis systems responding to cues from the newborn. Our aim was to assess one specific regulatory mechanism: the role that olfaction plays in the onset and modulation of parenting behavior. We focused on changes in gene expression in olfactory brain regions, examining nine genes found in previous knockout studies to be necessary for maternal behavior. Using a quantitative PCR (qPCR)-based approach, we assessed changes in gene expression in response to exposure to pups in 11 microdissected olfactory brain regions. Over the first postpartum days, all nine genes were detected in all 11 regions (at differing levels) and their expression changed in response to pup exposure. As a general trend, five genes (Dbh, Esr1, FosB, Foxb1, and Oxtr) were found to decrease their expression in most of the olfactory regions examined, while two genes (Mest and Prlr) were found to increase expression. Nos1 and Peg3 levels remained relatively stable except in the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), where greater than fourfold increases in expression were observed. The largest magnitude expression changes in this study were found in the AOB, which mediates a variety of olfactory cues that elicit stereotypic behaviors such as mating and aggression as well as some non-pheromone odors. Previous analyses of null mice for the nine genes assessed here have rarely examined olfactory function. Our data suggest that there may be olfactory effects in these null mice which contribute to the observed maternal behavioral phenotypes. Collectively, these data support the hypothesis that olfactory processing is an important sensory regulator of maternal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofija V Canavan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT, USA
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Velandia M, Matthisen AS, Uvnäs-Moberg K, Nissen E. Onset of vocal interaction between parents and newborns in skin-to-skin contact immediately after elective cesarean section. Birth 2010; 37:192-201. [PMID: 20887535 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-536x.2010.00406.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cesarean section is associated with delayed mother-infant interaction because neither the mother nor the father routinely maintains skin-to-skin contact with the infant after birth. The aim of the study was to explore and compare parent-newborn vocal interaction when the infant is placed in skin-to-skin contact either with the mother or the father immediately after a planned cesarean section. METHODS A total of 37 healthy infants born to primiparas were randomized to 30 minutes of skin-to-skin contact either with fathers or mothers after an initial 5 minutes of skin-to-skin contact with the mothers after birth. The newborns' and parents' vocal interaction were recorded on a videotape and audiotape. The following variables were explored: newborns' and parents' soliciting, newborns' crying and whining, and parental speech directed to the other parent and to the newborn. RESULTS Newborns' soliciting increased over time (p=0.032). Both fathers and mothers in skin-to-skin contact communicated more vocally with the newborn than did fathers (p=0.003) and mothers (p=0.009) without skin-to-skin contact. Fathers in skin-to-skin contact also communicated more with the mother (p=0.046) and performed more soliciting responses than the control fathers (p=0.010). Infants in skin-to-skin contact with their fathers cried significantly less than those in skin-to-skin contact with their mothers (p=0.002) and shifted to a relaxed state earlier than in skin-to-skin contact with mothers (p=0.029). CONCLUSIONS Skin-to-skin contact between infants and parents immediately after planned cesarean section promotes vocal interaction. When placed in skin-to-skin contact and exposed to the parents' speech, the infants initiated communication with soliciting calls with the parents within approximately 15 minutes after birth. These findings give reason to encourage parents to keep the newborn in skin-to-skin contact after cesarean section, to support the early onset of the first vocal communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Velandia
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Division of Sexual Reproductive and Perinatal Health, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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38
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Gordon I, Zagoory-Sharon O, Leckman JF, Feldman R. Oxytocin, cortisol, and triadic family interactions. Physiol Behav 2010; 101:679-84. [PMID: 20723553 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2010] [Revised: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 08/10/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) supports the development of parenting in mammals primarily through its impact on parent-infant proximity and touch behaviors; however, much less is known about the links between OT and parental touch and contact in humans. In this study, we examined the relations between maternal and paternal OT and patterns of touch and contact in the family unit during triadic interactions. Thirty-seven parents and their firstborn child were seen twice: during the 2nd and 6th postpartum month. Plasma OT and salivary cortisol (CT) were assessed with ELISA methods. At six months, triadic mother-father-infant interactions were videotaped and micro-coded for patterns of proximity, touch, and gaze behavior. Triadic synchrony, defined as moments of coordination between physical proximity and affectionate touch between the parents as well as between parent and infant while both parent and child are synchronizing their social gaze, was predicted by both maternal and paternal OT. Among mothers, triadic synchrony was also independently related to lower levels of CT. Results highlight the role of OT in the early formation of the family unit at the transition to parenthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilanit Gordon
- Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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39
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Effects of parturition on immediate early gene protein expression within the brains of female rats. Neuroscience 2010; 169:637-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Revised: 05/21/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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40
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Volatile Signals during Pregnancy. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(10)83012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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41
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Tu MT, Lupien SJ, Walker CD. Measuring stress responses in postpartum mothers: perspectives from studies in human and animal populations. Stress 2005; 8:19-34. [PMID: 16019595 DOI: 10.1080/10253890500103806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Reduced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) responses to stress during the last week of pregnancy and lactation have been consistently observed in rat studies. Several contributing factors have been proposed for this phenomenon in lactation, including the suckling stimulus from the pups, hormones (oxytocin and prolactin) and opioids, a decrease in the ability of noradrenaline to potentiate hypothalamic responses and changes in pituitary responsiveness to ACTH secretagogues (AVP and CRF). In contrast to this vast literature using the rat model, only few studies have addressed this issue in the human population. The consensus is that women engaging in breastfeeding activities exhibit reduced anxiety, although the reductions in neuroendocrine and autonomic responses to stressors are variable, in part because of the different nature of the stressors used. Further work is required to investigate how additional factors, such as maternal parity or emotional salience of the stressor can affect stress responsiveness in postpartum women. Here, we review first the findings regarding stress responsiveness during lactation in both rat and human studies, and then discuss potential research avenues and methodological issues that could be the lead to future research protocols in human subjects. Knowing the reciprocal relationship in the mother-infant dyad, it is clear that investigation of the mechanisms regulating stress responses and mental health in postpartum mothers can only be beneficial to the development of the infant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai Thanh Tu
- Department of Psychiatry, Douglas Hospital Research Center, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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42
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Lévy F, Keller M, Poindron P. Olfactory regulation of maternal behavior in mammals. Horm Behav 2004; 46:284-302. [PMID: 15325229 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2004.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2003] [Revised: 02/06/2004] [Accepted: 02/10/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, olfactory cues are extensively used in many aspects of maternal care to ensure the coordination of mother-infant interactions and consequently the normal development of the offspring. Outside the period of parturition and lactation, when the young are not a behavioral priority, olfactory cues play an inhibitory role on maternal responsiveness since in most mammalian species studied so far, nonpregnant females find the odor of young aversive. On the contrary at the time of parturition, a shift in the hedonic value of infantile odors occurs so that the young now become a very potent stimulus and this sensorial processing constitutes an important part of the maternal motivational system. Moreover, infants' odors provide a basis for individual recognition by their mothers and some species (ungulates) have developed highly specialized mechanisms for processing of the infant signals. Perception of the smell of the young also regulates various aspects of maternal behavior. Dodecyl propionate, a compound released by of pup's preputial glands, has been shown to influence anogenital licking behavior, a fundamental pattern of maternal behavior in rodents. While there is no functional specificity of either the main or the accessory olfactory systems in the development of maternal behavior amongst species, it appears that only the main olfactory system is implicated when individual odor discrimination of the young is required. Neural structures, such as the main olfactory bulb, undergo profound changes when exposed to offspring odors at parturition. These changes in synaptic circuitry contribute both to maternal responsiveness to these odors, to their memorization, and to effects of long-term maternal experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Lévy
- Equipe Comportement, Station PRC, UMR 6175 INRA/CNRS/Université de Tours/Haras Nationaux, 37380, Nouzilly, France.
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Poindron P, Gilling G, Hernandez H, Serafin N, Terrazas A. Early recognition of newborn goat kids by their mother: I. Nonolfactory discrimination. Dev Psychobiol 2003; 43:82-9. [PMID: 12918087 DOI: 10.1002/dev.10123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Mother sheep and goats develop an early bond with their neonate on the basis of olfactory recognition. We investigated whether goats were also able to show early (<24 hr postpartum) nonolfactory discrimination of their kids, as already reported in sheep. In a first experiment, we found that goats are not able to recognize their kid at 1 m away on the basis of olfactory cues alone. By contrast, they showed a significant preference for their own kid in a two-choice test as early as 4 hr postpartum, and prepartum maternal anosmia did not impede the ability of mothers to show discrimination. We conclude that goats, like sheep, are fully able to discriminate their neonate without the help of olfactory cues very early after parturition. The difference in the early spatial mother-young relationship between the two species due to the different behavior of the young (kids = hiders, lambs = followers), is not associated with marked differences in the dynamics or mechanisms controlling the development of recognition of the neonate by its mother.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Poindron
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus UNAM-UAQ Juriquilla Km. 15 Carretera Querétaro-San Luis Potosi, Querétaro 76230, QRO, Mexico.
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Fleming AS, Corter C, Stallings J, Steiner M. Testosterone and prolactin are associated with emotional responses to infant cries in new fathers. Horm Behav 2002; 42:399-413. [PMID: 12488107 DOI: 10.1006/hbeh.2002.1840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To determine the responsiveness of new fathers and non-fathers toward infant cues, we exposed fathers and non-fathers to infant cries and to control stimuli and we measured affective, heart-rate, and endocrine responses, including salivary testosterone and cortisol and plasma prolactin concentrations prior to and after cry presentations. We found that (1) fathers hearing the cry stimuli felt more sympathetic and more alert compared to groups who did not hear the cries or to non-fathers who heard the cries; (2) fathers and non-fathers with lower testosterone levels had higher sympathy and/or need to respond to the infant cries than fathers with higher testosterone levels; (3) fathers with higher, as opposed to lower, prolactin levels were also more alert and more positive in response to the cries; (4) fathers hearing the cry stimuli showed greater percentage increase in testosterone than fathers not hearing the cry stimuli; (5) experienced fathers hearing the cries showed a greater percentage increase in prolactin levels compared to first-time fathers or to any group of fathers hearing control stimuli; finally, (6) partial correlations with parity and experience entered as a covariates indicated that both experience and testosterone contributed to the variance in fathers' affective responses to infant cries. Taken together, these results indicate that, as with a number of other biparental species, human fathers are more responsive to infant cues than are non-fathers and fathers' responses to infant cues are related to both hormones and to caregiving experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison S Fleming
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada.
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Abstract
The reproductive strategy of many mammalian species that give birth to altricial young involves intense and prolonged care of their offspring. In most cases, the mother provides all nurturance, but in some cases fathers, older siblings, or unrelated conspecifics participate in parental care. The display of these behaviors by animals other than mothers is affected by numerous factors, including their sex. We herein review the literature on similarities and/or differences between male and female laboratory rodents (rats, mice, voles, gerbils, and hamsters) in their parental responsiveness and discuss how the parental behavior of males and females is influenced by hormones, developmental processes, and prior social experiences. Understanding the mechanisms that generate sex differences in the parental responsiveness of rodents may indicate how similar sex differences in parental care are generated in other mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Lonstein
- Center for Neuroendocrine Studies, Tobin Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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46
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Abstract
Human infants are particularly responsive to olfactory cues emanating from their mother's nipple/areola region. Beginning within minutes after birth, maternal breast odors elicit preferential head orientation by neonates and help guide them to the nipple. Such odors also influence babies' general motor activity and arousal, which may contribute further to successful nipple localization and sucking. The role of maternal olfactory signals in the mediation of early breast-feeding is functionally analogous to that of nipple-search pheromone as described in nonhuman mammals. To some extent, the chemical profile of breast secretions overlaps with that of amniotic fluid. Therefore, early postnatal attraction to odors associated with the nipple/areola may reflect prenatal exposure and familiarization. Although newborns are generally attracted to breast odors produced by lactating women, breast-fed infants rapidly learn their mother's characteristic olfactory signature while sucking at her breasts and can subsequently recognize her by that unique scent alone. Early odor-based recognition may be an important factor in the development of the infant-mother bond.
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Affiliation(s)
- R H Porter
- Laboratoire de Comportement Animal, CNRS/URA 1291, INRA, Nouzilly, France
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47
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Fleming A, Corter C, Surbey M, Franks P, Steiner M. Postpartum factors related to mother's recognition of newborn infant odours. J Reprod Infant Psychol 1995. [DOI: 10.1080/02646839508403249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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