Next-Generation Potentiometric Sensors: A Review of Flexible and Wearable Technologies

In recent years, the field of wearable sensors has undergone significant evolution, emerging as a pivotal topic of research due to the capacity of such sensors to gather physiological data during various human activities. Transitioning from basic fitness trackers, these sensors are continuously being improved, with the ultimate objective to make compact, sophisticated, highly integrated, and adaptable multi-functional devices that seamlessly connect to clothing or the body, and continuously monitor bodily signals without impeding the wearer's comfort or well-being. Potentiometric sensors, leveraging a range of different solid contact materials, have emerged as a preferred choice for wearable chemical or biological sensors. Nanomaterials play a pivotal role, offering unique properties, such as high conductivity and surface-to-volume ratios. This article provides a review of recent advancements in wearable potentiometric sensors utilizing various solid contacts, with a particular emphasis on nanomaterials. These sensors are employed for precise ion concentration determinations, notably sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, and chloride, in human biological fluids. This review highlights two primary applications, that is, (1) the enhancement of athletic performance by continuous monitoring of ion levels in sweat to gauge the athlete's health status, and (2) the facilitation of clinical diagnosis and preventive healthcare by monitoring the health status of patients, in particular to detect early signs of dehydration, fatigue, and muscle spasms.

Spontaneous Mesoporosity-Driven Sequestration of Ionic Liquids from Silicone-Based Reference Electrode Membranes

Nanopore-driven sequestration of ionic liquids from a silicone membrane is presented, a phenomenon that has not been reported previously. Reference electrodes with ionic liquid doped polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) reference membranes and colloid-imprinted mesoporous carbon (CIM) as solid contact are not functional unless special attention is paid to the porosity of the solid contact. In the fabrication of such reference electrodes, a solution of a hydroxyl-terminated silicone oligomer, ionic liquid, cross-linking reagent, and polymerization catalyst is deposited on top of the carbon layer, rapidly filling the pores of the CIM carbon. The catalyzed polymerization curing of the silicone quickly results in cross-linking of the hydroxyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane oligomers, forming structures that are too large to penetrate the CIM carbon pores. Therefore, as solvent evaporation from the top of freshly prepared membranes drives the diffusional transport of solvent toward that membrane surface, the solvent molecules that leave the CIM carbon pores can only be replaced by the ionic liquid. This depletes the ionic liquid in the reference membrane that overlies the CIM carbon solid contact and increases the membrane resistance by up to 3 orders of magnitude, rendering the devices dysfunctional. This problem can be avoided by presaturating the CIM carbon with ionic liquid prior to the deposition of the solution that contains the silicone oligomers and ionic liquid. Alternatively, a high amount of ionic liquid can be added into the membrane solution to account for the size-selective sequestration of ionic liquid into the carbon pores. Either way, a wide variety of ionic liquids can be used to prepare PDMS-based reference electrodes with CIM carbon as a solid contact. A similar depletion of the K⁺ ionophore BME-44 from ion-selective silicone membranes was observed too, highlighting that the depletion of active ingredients from polymeric ion-selective and reference membranes due to interactions with high surface area solid contacts may be a more common phenomenon that so far has been overlooked.

Flexible Textile-Based Sweat Sensors for Wearable Applications

The current physical health care system has gradually evolved into a form of virtual hospitals communicating with sensors, which can not only save time but can also diagnose a patient's physical condition in real time. Textile-based wearable sensors have recently been identified as detection platforms with high potential. They are developed for the real-time noninvasive detection of human physiological information to comprehensively analyze the health status of the human body. Sweat comprises various chemical compositions, which can be used as biomarkers to reflect the relevant information of the human physiology, thus providing references for health conditions. Combined together, textile-based sweat sensors are more flexible and comfortable than other conventional sensors, making them easily integrated into the wearable field. In this short review, the research progress of textile-based flexible sweat sensors was reviewed. Three mechanisms commonly used for textile-based sweat sensors were firstly contrasted with an introduction to their materials and preparation processes. The components of textile-based sweat sensors, which mainly consist of a sweat transportation channel and collector, a signal-selection unit, sensing elements and sensor integration and communication technologies, were reviewed. The applications of textile-based sweat sensors with different mechanisms were also presented. Finally, the existing problems and challenges of sweat sensors were summarized, which may contribute to promote their further development.

Development and comparison of various rod-shaped mini-reference electrode compositions based on Ag/AgCl for potentiometric applications

Several fundamentally similar, miniaturized solid-state reference electrode designs, and their fabrication and comparison are described in this article. All electrodes were based on Ag/AgCl as their reference element. The best electrode (a three-layer assembly with graphite oxide, epoxy, and hardener as the framework providers and with well-mixed micro-Ag particles in the bottom layer, AgCl in the middle layer, and fine KCl powder in the top layer) exhibited satisfactory short-term performance to replace a commercial reference electrode in many cases and was rigorously tested in terms of pH response, long-term leakage, and the effect of oxygen to better evaluate its characteristics. To assess the electrode's performance in medically important studies, cytotoxicity experiments and tests in artificial saliva were also conducted. All tests demonstrated that our best reference electrode was stable and had a long shelf life.

The Use of an Acylhydrazone-Based Metal-Organic Framework in Solid-Contact Potassium-Selective Electrode for Water Analysis

A solid-contact ion-selective electrode was developed for detecting potassium in environmental water. Two versions of a stable cadmium acylhydrazone-based metal organic framework, i.e., JUK-13 and JUK-13_H2O, were used for the construction of the mediation layer. The potentiometric and electrochemical characterizations of the proposed electrodes were carried out. The implementation of the JUK-13_H2O interlayer is shown to improve the potentiometric response and stability of measured potential. The electrode exhibits a good Nernstian slope (56.30 mV/decade) in the concentration range from 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻¹ mol L⁻¹ with a detection limit of 2.1 µmol L⁻¹. The long-term potential stability shows a small drift of 0.32 mV h⁻¹ over 67 h. The electrode displays a good selectivity comparable to ion-selective electrodes with the same membrane. The K-JUK-13_H2O-ISE was successfully applied for the determination of potassium in three certified reference materials of environmental water with great precision (RSD < 3.00%) and accuracy (RE < 3.00%).

Highly Stable Potentiometric (Bio)Sensor for Urea and Urease Activity Determination

There is growing interest for bioanalytical tools that might be designed for a specific user, primarily for research purposes. In this perspective, a new, highly stable potentiometric sensor based on glassy carbon/polyazulene/NH₄⁺-selective membrane was developed and utilized for urease activity determination. Urease–urea interaction studies were carried out and the Michaelis–Menten constant was established for this enzymatic reaction. Biofunctionalization of the ammonium ion-selective sensor with urease lead to urea biosensor with remarkably good potential stability (drift coefficient ~0.9 mV/h) and short response time (t_95% = 36 s). The prepared biosensor showed the Nernstian response (S = 52.4 ± 0.7 mV/dec) in the urea concentration range from 0.01 to 20 mM, stable for the experimental time of 60 days. In addition, some insights into electrical properties of the ion-to-electron transducing layer resulting from impedance spectroscopy measurements are presented. Based on the RCQ equivalent circuits comparison, it can be drawn that the polyazulene (PAz) layer shows the least capacitive behavior, which might result in good time stability of the sensor in respect to response as well as potential E⁰. Both the polyazulene-based solid-contact ion selective electrodes and urea biosensors were successfully used in trial studies for determination of ammonium ion and urea in human saliva samples. The accuracy of ammonium ion and urea levels determination by potentiometric method was confirmed by two reference spectrophotometric methods.

Reliable environmental trace heavy metal analysis with potentiometric ion sensors - reality or a distant dream

Over two decades have passed since polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes were found to exhibit sufficiently lower detection limits. This in turn brought a great promise to measure trace level concentrations of heavy metals using potentiometric ion sensors at environmental conditions. Despite great efforts, trace analysis of heavy metals using ion-selective electrodes at environmental conditions is still not commercially available. This work will predominantly concentrate on summarizing and evaluating prospects of using potentiometric ion sensors in view of environmental determination of heavy metals in on-site and on-line analysis modes. Challenges associated with development of reliable potentiometric sensors to be operational in environmental conditions will be discussed and reasoning behind unsuccessful efforts to develop potentiometric on-site and on-line environmental ion sensors will be explored. In short, it is now clear that solely lowering the detection limit of the ion-selective electrodes does not guarantee development of successful sensors that would meet the requirement of environmental matrices over long term usage. More pressing challenges of the properties and the performance of the potentiometric sensors must be addressed first before considering extending their sensitivity to low analyte concentrations. These are, in order of importance, selectivity of the ion-selective membrane to main ion followed by the membrane resistance to parallel processes, such as water ingress to the ISM, light sensitivity, change in temperature, presence of gasses in solution and pH and finally resistance of the ion-selective membrane to fouling. In the future, targeted on-site and on-line environmental sensors should be developed, addressing specific environmental conditions. Thus, ion-selective electrodes should be developed with the intention to be suitable to the operational environmental conditions, rather than looking at universal sensor design validated in the idealized and simple sample matrices.

Multisensor Systems and Arrays for Medical Applications Employing Naturally-Occurring Compounds and Materials

The significant improvement of quality of life achieved over the last decades has stimulated the development of new approaches in medicine to take into account the personal needs of each patient. Precision medicine, providing healthcare customization, opens new horizons in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of numerous diseases. As a consequence, there is a growing demand for novel analytical devices and methods capable of addressing the challenges of precision medicine. For example, various types of sensors or their arrays are highly suitable for simultaneous monitoring of multiple analytes in complex biological media in order to obtain more information about the health status of a patient or to follow the treatment process. Besides, the development of sustainable sensors based on natural chemicals allows reducing their environmental impact. This review is concerned with the application of such analytical platforms in various areas of medicine: analysis of body fluids, wearable sensors, drug manufacturing and screening. The importance and role of naturally-occurring compounds in the development of electrochemical multisensor systems and arrays are discussed.

Potentiometric Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrode for Determination of Thiocyanate in Human Saliva

A new solid-contact potentiometric ion-selective electrode for the determination of SCN- (SCN-ISE) has been described. Synthesized phosphonium derivative of calix[4]arene was used as a charged ionophore. The research included selection of the ion-selective membrane composition, determination of the ISEs metrological parameters and SCN-ISE application for thiocyanate determination in human saliva. Preparation of the ISEs included selection of a plasticizer for the ion-selective membrane composition and type of the electrode material. The study was carried out using ISE with liquid internal electrolyte (LE-ISE) and solid-contact electrodes made of glassy carbon (GC-ISE) and gold rods (Au-ISE). The best parameters were found for GC sensors for which the ion-selective membrane contained chloroparaffin as a plasticizer (S = 59.9 mV/dec, LOD = 1.6 ´ 10-6 M). The study of potentiometric selectivity coefficients has shown that the thiocyanate-selective sensor could be applied in biomedical research for determination of SCN- concentration in human saliva. The accuracy of the SCN- determination was verified by testing 59 samples of volunteers' saliva by potentiometric sensors and UV-Vis spectrophotometry as a reference technique. Moreover, SCN- concentrations in the smokers' and non-smokers' saliva were compared. In order to investigate the influence of various factors (sex, health status, taken medications) on the thiocyanate level in the saliva, more extensive studies on a group of 100 volunteers were carried out. Additionally, for a group of 18 volunteers, individual profiles of SCN- concentration in saliva measured on a daily basis for over a month were collected.

Electronic Tongues for Inedible Media

“Electronic tongues”, “taste sensors”, and similar devices (further named as “multisensor systems”, or MSS) have been studied and applied mostly for the analysis of edible analytes. This is not surprising, since the MSS development was sometimes inspired by the mainstream idea that they could substitute human gustatory tests. However, the basic principle behind multisensor systems—a combination of an array of cross-sensitive chemical sensors for liquid analysis and a machine learning engine for multivariate data processing—does not imply any limitations on the application of such systems for the analysis of inedible media. This review deals with the numerous MSS applications for the analysis of inedible analytes, among other things, for agricultural and medical purposes.

A miniaturized solid-contact potentiometric multisensor platform for determination of ionic profiles in human saliva

This paper describes a miniaturized multisensor platform (MP-ISES) consisting of electrodes: a reference one (RE) and ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) for monitoring Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, and SCN− ions and pH in human saliva. Gold electrode surface was modified by deposition of two layers: electrosynthesized PEDOT:PSS forming an intermediate layer, and ion-selective membrane. The developed ISEs were characterized by a wide linear range and sensitivity consistent with the Nernst model. The entire MP-ISEs are characterized by satisfactory metrological parameters demonstrating their applicability in biomedical research, in particular in measurements concerning determination of ionic profiles of saliva. Saliva samples of 18 volunteers aged from 20 to 26 participating in a month experiment had been daily collected and investigated using the MP-ISEs assigned individually to each person. Personalized profiles of ions (ionograms) in saliva, such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, SCN−, and H+, were obtained.

Simultaneous Determination of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+and Cl−in Unstimulated and Stimulated Human Saliva Using All Solid State Multisensor Platform

Human saliva is one of the body fluids which collection method is relatively simple and non‐invasive. The article is dedicated to assess concentration (activity) of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+and Cl−in fresh, unstimulated or stimulated human saliva samples using single solid contact ion‐selective electrodes with conventional reference electrode and self‐made multisensor platform (MP) equipped with ion‐selective membranes for Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+and Cl−and reference electrode made in solid state technology, based on dispersed KCl in the polymer. Both kind of electrodes, single ISE and miniaturized electrodes in multisensor platform (ISE‐MP) were made of glassy carbon. The electrode surfaces have been modified by conductive polymer (PEDOT) layer deposition; with the exception of Cl−electrode, in which conducting polymer was not applied. Potentiometric measurements were used to compare the changes of the ionic composition in various samples of saliva.

New bis(azobenzocrown)s with dodecylmethylmalonyl linkers as ionophores for sodium selective potentiometric sensors

Novel biscrowns 1 and 2 were synthesized from 13-membered azobenzocrown ethers containing bromoalkylenoxy chains in para position relative to the azo group. The synthesized diester molecules are dodecylmethylmalonic acid derivatives differing by the linker length. The synthesized compounds have the potential of being used as sodium ionophores in ion-selective electrodes. They were characterized and used as ionophores in classic and miniature, solid contact (screen-printed and glassy carbon) membrane ion-selective electrodes. Compound 3, a similar monoester derivative of 13-membered azobenzocrown, was synthesized and used in membrane electrodes for comparison. Lipophilicity of new ionophores was determined by TLC. Lipophilicity of bis(azobenzocrown)s was found to be within the range of logPTLC = 12-13. It was observed that the particularly important selectivity coefficients logKNa,K determined for new electrodes, being logKNa,K = -2.5 and -2.6 (SSM, 0.1 M), are better than those of the electrodes featuring seven out of the nine commercially available sodium ionophores. It was concluded that the ionophore 1 creates, in acetone, with sodium iodide, complex of 1:1 stoichiometry (sandwich complex) with stability constant (logK) ca. 3.0.