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Xu C, Tan Y, Zhang LY, Luo XJ, Wu JF, Ma L, Deng F. The Application of Aptamer and Research Progress in Liver Disease. Mol Biotechnol 2024; 66:1000-1018. [PMID: 38305844 PMCID: PMC11087326 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-023-01030-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Aptamers, as a kind of small-molecule nucleic acid, have attracted much attention since their discovery. Compared with biological reagents such as antibodies, aptamers have the advantages of small molecular weight, low immunogenicity, low cost, and easy modification. At present, aptamers are mainly used in disease biomarker discovery, disease diagnosis, treatment, and targeted drug delivery vectors. In the process of screening and optimizing aptamers, it is found that there are still many problems need to be solved such as the design of the library, optimization of screening conditions, the truncation of screened aptamer, and the stability and toxicity of the aptamer. In recent years, the incidence of liver-related diseases is increasing year by year and the treatment measures are relatively lacking, which has attracted the people's attention in the application of aptamers in liver diseases. This article mainly summarizes the research status of aptamers in disease diagnosis and treatment, especially focusing on the application of aptamers in liver diseases, showing the crucial significance of aptamers in the diagnosis and treatment of liver diseases, and the use of Discovery Studio software to find the binding target and sequence of aptamers, and explore their possible interaction sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Xu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
- College of Basic Medical Science, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443002, Hubei, China
- Institute of Organ Fibrosis and Targeted Drug Delivery, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
| | - Yong Tan
- Hubei Selenium and Human Health Institute, The Central Hospital of Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Enshi, Hubei, China
| | - Li-Ye Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
- College of Basic Medical Science, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443002, Hubei, China
- Institute of Organ Fibrosis and Targeted Drug Delivery, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
| | - Xiao-Jie Luo
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
- College of Basic Medical Science, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443002, Hubei, China
- Institute of Organ Fibrosis and Targeted Drug Delivery, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
| | - Jiang-Feng Wu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
- College of Basic Medical Science, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443002, Hubei, China
- Institute of Organ Fibrosis and Targeted Drug Delivery, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
| | - Lan Ma
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China.
- College of Basic Medical Science, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443002, Hubei, China.
- Institute of Organ Fibrosis and Targeted Drug Delivery, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China.
| | - Fei Deng
- Department of Oncology, The Second People's Hospital of China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443000, China.
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Minamino T, Ito Y, Ohkubo H, Shimuzu Y, Kojo K, Nishizwa N, Amano H, Narumiya S, Koizumi W, Majima M. Adhesion of platelets through thromboxane A₂ receptor signaling facilitates liver repair during acute chemical-induced hepatotoxicity. Life Sci 2015; 132:85-92. [PMID: 25921763 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Platelets have been suggested to play an important role in liver regeneration and repair after hepatic resection and acute liver injury. However, the underlying mechanisms of liver repair remain elusive. Signaling through thromboxane prostanoid (TP) receptor participates in inflammation and tissue injury through platelet aggregation. On the other hand, TP receptor signaling also is involved in tissue repair and tumor growth through angiogenesis. The present study was examined whether or not TP receptor signaling contributes to liver repair and sinusoidal restoration from acute liver injury through platelet adhesion to the hepatic sinusoids. MAIN METHODS Carbon tetrachrolide (CCl4) was used to induce acute liver injury in TP receptor knockout mice (TP(-/-) mice) and their wild-type littermates (WT mice). KEY FINDINGS Compared with WT mice, TP(-/-) mice exhibited delayed in liver repair and sinusoidal restoration after CCl4 treatment, which were associated with attenuated hepatic expression of pro-angiogenic factors. Intravital microscopic observation revealed that adhering platelets to the sinusoids was increased in WT livers during the repair phase as compared with TP(-/-) livers, and platelet adhesion was dependent on TP receptor signaling. The levels of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) in platelets from WT mice treated with CCl4 for 48h were greater than those form TP(-/-) mice, and HGF enhanced the expression of angiogenic factors in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). SIGNIFICANCE These results suggested that TP receptor signaling facilitates liver repair and sinusoidal restoration from acute liver injury through HGF release from platelets adhering to the sinusoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsutomu Minamino
- Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan; Department of Gastroenterology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Yoshiya Ito
- Department of Surgery, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Hirotoki Ohkubo
- Department of Surgery, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Yuki Shimuzu
- Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan; Department of Gastroenterology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Ken Kojo
- Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan; Department of Surgery, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Nishizwa
- Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan; Department of Surgery, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Hideki Amano
- Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Shuh Narumiya
- Innovation Center for Immunoregulation Technologies and Drugs (AK project), Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Wasaburo Koizumi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
| | - Masataka Majima
- Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan.
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Theaflavin attenuates ischemia–reperfusion injury in a mouse fatty liver model. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 417:287-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.11.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Accepted: 11/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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The liver prometastatic reaction of cancer patients: implications for microenvironment-dependent colon cancer gene regulation. CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT 2011; 4:163-80. [PMID: 21870094 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-011-0084-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Colon cancer frequently metastasizes to the liver but the genetic and phenotypic properties of specific cancer cells able to implant and grow in this organ have not yet been established. The contribution of the patient's genetic, physiologic and pathologic backgrounds to the incidence and development of hepatic colon cancer metastases is also presently misunderstood. At a transcriptional level, hepatic metastasis development is in part associated with marked changes in gene expression of colon cancer cells that may originate in the primary tumor. Other changes occur in the liver and are regulated by hepatic cells, which represent the new microenvironment for metastatic colon cancer cells. However, hepatic parenchymal and non-parenchymal cell functions are also affected by both tumor-derived factors and systemic host factors, which suggests that the hepatic metastasis microenvironment is a functional linkage between the hepatic pathophysiology of the colon cancer patient and the biology of its cancer cells. Therefore, together with metastasis-related gene profiles suggesting the existence of liver metastasis potential in primary tumors, new biomarkers of the prometastatic microenvironment supported by the liver reaction to colon cancer factors may be helpful for the individual assessment of hepatic metastasis risk in colon cancer patients. In addition, knowledge on hepatic metastasis gene regulation by the hepatic microenvironment may open multiple opportunities for therapeutic intervention during colon cancer metastasis at both subclinical and advanced stages.
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Tojima H, Kakizaki S, Kosone T, Horiguchi N, Yamazaki Y, Sato K, Takagi H, Mori M. Hepatocyte growth factor overexpression ameliorates liver inflammation and fibrosis in a mouse model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatol Int 2011; 6:620-30. [DOI: 10.1007/s12072-011-9301-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Engineering hepatocyte growth factor fragments with high stability and activity as Met receptor agonists and antagonists. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:13035-40. [PMID: 21788476 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1102561108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The Met receptor tyrosine kinase and its ligand hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) play an important role in mediating both tumor progression and tissue regeneration. The N-terminal and first Kringle domains (NK1) of HGF comprise a naturally occurring splice variant that retains the ability to activate the Met receptor. However, NK1 is a weak agonist and is relatively unstable, limiting its therapeutic potential. Here, we engineered NK1 mutants with improved biochemical and biophysical properties that function as Met receptor agonists or antagonists. We first engineered NK1 for increased stability and recombinant expression yield using directed evolution. The NK1 variants isolated from our library screens acted as weak Met receptor antagonists due to a mutation at the NK1 homodimerization interface. We introduced point mutations that restored this NK1 homodimerization interface to create an agonistic ligand, or that further disrupted this interface to create more effective antagonists. The rationally engineered antagonists exhibited melting temperatures up to approximately 64 °C, a 15 °C improvement over antagonists derived from wild-type NK1, and approximately 40-fold improvement in expression yield. Next, we created disulfide-linked NK1 homodimers through introduction of an N-terminal cysteine residue. These covalent dimers exhibited nearly an order of magnitude improved agonistic activity compared to wild-type NK1, approaching the activity of full-length HGF. Moreover, covalent NK1 dimers formed from agonistic or antagonistic monomeric subunits elicited similar activity, further signifying that NK1 dimerization mediates agonistic activity. These engineered NK1 proteins are promising candidates for therapeutic development and will be useful tools for further exploring determinants of Met receptor activation.
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The Tumor Microenvironment at Different Stages of Hepatic Metastasis. LIVER METASTASIS: BIOLOGY AND CLINICAL MANAGEMENT 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-0292-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Xue F, Zhang JJ, Xu LM, Zhang C, Xia Q. Protective effects of HGF-MSP chimer (metron factor-1) on liver ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat model. J Dig Dis 2010; 11:299-305. [PMID: 20883426 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-2980.2010.00453.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It has been reported that metron factor-1 (MF-1), an engineered chimerical factor containing selected functional domains of hepatocyte growth factor and macrophage-stimulating protein (HGF-MSP), could prevent apoptosis and have an anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, we investigate the protective effect of MF-1 on liver ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. METHODS Overall 30 Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups: the I/R model group (n=12), the MF-1 treatment group (n=12), and the sham-operated group (n=6). Liver I/R injury was induced by clamping the blood supply to the left and median lobes of liver by an atraumatic clamp for 90 min, then removing the clamp and allowing reperfusion. Blood samples were obtained on days 1, 2, 3 and 7 to assess liver biochemistry and the histology of liver tissue. Levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), nitric oxide (NO), endothelial nitric oxide synthase and inducible nitric oxide synthase were measured. In addition, the anti-oxidative effect of MF-1 on hepatocytes was assessed in vitro. RESULTS MF-1 treatment improved the rat survival rate significantly (P < 0.05). Liver biochemistry and histological changes were significantly ameliorated. MDA increased and SOD and NO decreased in the liver tissue. In vitro, MF-1 protected the human hepatic cell line HL-7702 from damage of oxidative stress. CONCLUSION MF-1 could protect the liver from I/R injury, which might involve the reduction of oxygen free radicals and the increase of NO synthesis in an injured liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Xue
- Organ Transplantation Center, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, China.
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Tumor necrosis factor-alpha accelerates apoptosis of steatotic hepatocytes from a murine model of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 391:1731-6. [PMID: 20043871 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.12.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) develops in a subset of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the exact mechanisms involved in the progression of NAFLD to NASH remain poorly understood. We investigated the role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in the apoptosis of hepatocytes that is related to the severity of NASH. We separated primary hepatocytes from the NAFLD liver caused by a high-fat diet. The production of intracellular reactive oxygen species was increased in steatotic hepatocytes, which were also sensitive to TNF-alpha. This factor induced significant apoptosis through the signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. We describe here a novel culture model of steatotic hepatocytes separated from the NAFLD liver, and demonstrate that TNF-alpha induces their apoptosis in vitro.
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Suzuki H, Toyoda M, Horiguchi N, Kakizaki S, Ohyama T, Takizawa D, Ichikawa T, Sato K, Takagi H, Mori M. Hepatocyte growth factor protects against Fas-mediated liver apoptosis in transgenic mice. Liver Int 2009; 29:1562-8. [PMID: 19725891 DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02102.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apoptosis via the Fas/Fas ligand signalling system plays an important role in the development of various liver diseases. The administration of an agonistic anti-Fas antibody to mice causes massive hepatic apoptosis and fulminant hepatic failure. Several growth factors including hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) have been found to prevent apoptosis. METHODS In this study, we demonstrated the overexpression of HGF to have a protective effect on Fas-mediated hepatic apoptosis using a transgenic mice (Tg mice) model. RESULTS In HGF Tg mice, the elevation of alanine aminotransferase was dramatically inhibited at 12 and 24 h after the administration of 0.15 mg/kg anti-Fas antibody. HGF Tg mice showed a significantly lower number of apoptotic hepatocytes at 12 h compared with wild-type (WT) mice. Furthermore, 85% (six of seven) HGF Tg mice were able to survive after the administration of 0.3 mg/kg anti-Fas antibody, while none of the WT mice survived. The Bcl-xL expression was increased in HGF Tg mice, while there was no difference in the expression of Bax, Bid, Mcl-1 and bcl-2 between WT mice and HGF Tg mice. In addition, the HGF Tg mice showed more Akt phosphorylation than the WT mice both before and after the anti-Fas antibody injection. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our findings suggest that HGF protects against Fas-mediated liver apoptosis in vivo, and the upregulation of Bcl-xL via Akt activation may also play a role in the protective effects of HGF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideyuki Suzuki
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
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Kudo H, Takahara T, Yata Y, Kawai K, Zhang W, Sugiyama T. Lipopolysaccharide triggered TNF-alpha-induced hepatocyte apoptosis in a murine non-alcoholic steatohepatitis model. J Hepatol 2009; 51:168-75. [PMID: 19446916 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2009.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2008] [Revised: 02/07/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Endogenous gut-derived bacterial endotoxins have been implicated as an important cofactor in the pathogenesis of liver injury, although their contribution to the progression of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) remains unclear. METHODS Male C57BL/6 mice were fed a methionine-choline-deficient (MCD) diet or a standard diet for 17 days, following which they were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) intraperitoneally and sacrificed after 6h. In an in vitro experiment, RAW264.7 cells, a mouse macrophage cell line, and primary mouse hepatocytes were co-treated with hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and LPS or tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. RESULTS Compared to the control mice, LPS treatment significantly increased hepatic TNF-alpha production in MCD mice. LPS also significantly increased TUNEL-positive cells, which were especially observed in the perivenular area. The apoptotic change was inhibited by co-treatment with a neutralizing anti-mouse TNF receptor antibody or pentoxifylline. In an in vitro experiment, treatment with H(2)O(2) synergistically enhanced LPS-induced TNF-alpha production in RAW264.7 cells, accompanied by an up-regulation of CD14 mRNA. Moreover, co-treatment with TNF-alpha- and H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis in primary hepatocytes, although neither TNF-alpha nor H(2)O(2) could do so independently. CONCLUSIONS LPS up-regulated TNF-alpha production, which induced hepatocyte apoptosis in a murine NASH model. LPS may play a key role in the pathogenesis of NASH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kudo
- Third Department of Internal Medicine, University of Toyama, 2630 Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
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Cassano M, Biressi S, Finan A, Benedetti L, Omes C, Boratto R, Martin F, Allegretti M, Broccoli V, Cusella De Angelis G, Comoglio PM, Basilico C, Torrente Y, Michieli P, Cossu G, Sampaolesi M. Magic-factor 1, a partial agonist of Met, induces muscle hypertrophy by protecting myogenic progenitors from apoptosis. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3223. [PMID: 18795097 PMCID: PMC2528937 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 08/20/2008] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF) is a pleiotropic cytokine of mesenchymal origin that mediates a characteristic array of biological activities including cell proliferation, survival, motility and morphogenesis. Its high affinity receptor, the tyrosine kinase Met, is expressed by a wide range of tissues and can be activated by either paracrine or autocrine stimulation. Adult myogenic precursor cells, the so called satellite cells, express both HGF and Met. Following muscle injury, autocrine HGF-Met stimulation plays a key role in promoting activation and early division of satellite cells, but is shut off in a second phase to allow myogenic differentiation. In culture, HGF stimulation promotes proliferation of muscle precursors thereby inhibiting their differentiation. Methodology/Principal Findings Magic-Factor 1 (Met-Activating Genetically Improved Chimeric Factor-1 or Magic-F1) is an HGF-derived, engineered protein that contains two Met-binding domains repeated in tandem. It has a reduced affinity for Met and, in contrast to HGF it elicits activation of the AKT but not the ERK signaling pathway. As a result, Magic-F1 is not mitogenic but conserves the ability to promote cell survival. Here we show that Magic-F1 protects myogenic precursors against apoptosis, thus increasing their fusion ability and enhancing muscular differentiation. Electrotransfer of Magic-F1 gene into adult mice promoted muscular hypertrophy and decreased myocyte apoptosis. Magic-F1 transgenic mice displayed constitutive muscular hypertrophy, improved running performance and accelerated muscle regeneration following injury. Crossing of Magic-F1 transgenic mice with α-sarcoglycan knock-out mice –a mouse model of muscular dystrophy– or adenovirus-mediated Magic-F1 gene delivery resulted in amelioration of the dystrophic phenotype as measured by both anatomical/histological analysis and functional tests. Conclusions/Significance Because of these features Magic-F1 represents a novel molecular tool to counteract muscle wasting in major muscular diseases such as cachexia or muscular dystrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cassano
- Translational Cardiomyology, Stem Cell Institute Leuven (SCIL), KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Histology and Medical Embryology, University of Rome Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Amanda Finan
- Stem Cell Research Institute, H. S. Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Claudia Omes
- Human Anatomy, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Vania Broccoli
- Stem Cell Research Institute, H. S. Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Paolo M. Comoglio
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Cristina Basilico
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Yvan Torrente
- Department of Neurological Science, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Michieli
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Giulio Cossu
- Stem Cell Research Institute, H. S. Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Maurilio Sampaolesi
- Translational Cardiomyology, Stem Cell Institute Leuven (SCIL), KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Human Anatomy, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- * E-mail:
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