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Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Massano M, Cleland CM. Trends in reported and biologically confirmed drug use among people who use ecstasy in the nightclub/festival-attending population, 2016-2022. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE REPORTS 2023; 9:100198. [PMID: 38023341 PMCID: PMC10665664 DOI: 10.1016/j.dadr.2023.100198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Background Nightclub/festival attendees are a population with high rates of party drug use, but research is needed to determine whether there have been shifts in unintended drug exposure in this population (e.g., via adulterants) to inform prevention and harm reduction efforts. Methods Adults entering nightclubs and festivals in New York City were asked about past-year drug use in 2016 through 2022, with a subset providing a hair sample for testing. We focused on the 1943 who reported ecstasy use (of which 247 had a hair sample analyzed) and compared trends in self-reported drug use, drug positivity, and adjusted prevalence (adjusting for unreported use). Results MDMA positivity decreased from 74.4 % to 42.3 %, and decreases occurred regarding detection of synthetic cathinones ("bath salts"; a 100.0 % decrease), MDA (a 76.9 % decrease), amphetamine (an 81.3 % decrease), methamphetamine (a 64.2 % decrease), and ketamine (a 33.4 % decrease) (ps < .05). Although prevalence of MDA and synthetic cathinone use was comparable between self-report and adjusted report in 2022, gaps in prevalence were wider in 2016 (ps < .01). Adjusted prevalence of synthetic cathinone use decreased more across time than prevalence based on self-report (a 79.4 % vs. 69.1 % decrease) and adjusted report for MDA use decreased more than prevalence based on self-report (a 50.6 % vs. 38.9 % decrease). Conclusions Combining self-report and toxicology tests helped us determine that decreases in drug use/exposure were steeper regarding adjusted prevalence. Underreported drug exposure-possibly due to exposure to adulterants-appears to have had less of an effect on prevalence in 2022 than it did in 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J. Palamar
- NYU Grossman School of Medicine, Department of Population Health, New York, NY, USA
- Center for Drug Use and HIV/HCV Research, School of Global Public Health, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano (TO), Italy
| | - Marta Massano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Charles M. Cleland
- NYU Grossman School of Medicine, Department of Population Health, New York, NY, USA
- Center for Drug Use and HIV/HCV Research, School of Global Public Health, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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Maghsoudi N, Tanguay J, Scarfone K, Rammohan I, Ziegler C, Werb D, Scheim AI. Drug checking services for people who use drugs: a systematic review. Addiction 2022; 117:532-544. [PMID: 34729849 PMCID: PMC9299873 DOI: 10.1111/add.15734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Drug checking services provide people who use drugs with chemical analysis results of their drug samples while simultaneously monitoring the unregulated drug market. We sought to identify and synthesize literature on the following domains: (a) the influence of drug checking services on the behaviour of people who use drugs; (b) monitoring of drug markets by drug checking services; and (c) outcomes related to models of drug checking services. METHODS Systematic review. A systematic literature search was conducted in MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science and Dissertations and Theses Global. Eligible studies were peer-reviewed articles and conference abstracts or grey literature, published in any language since 1990 and including original data on the domains. We assessed risk of bias for quantitative peer-reviewed articles reporting on behaviour or models of drug checking services using National Institutes of Health tools. RESULTS We screened 2463 titles and abstracts and 156 full texts, with 90 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Most (n = 65, 72.2%) were from Europe and used cross-sectional designs (n = 79, 87.7%). Monitoring of drug markets by drug checking services (n = 63, 70%) was the most reported domain, followed by the influence of drug checking services on behaviour (n = 31, 34.4%), including intent to use, actual use and disposal of the drug, and outcomes related to models of drug checking services (n = 17, 18.9%). The most common outcome measures were detection of unexpected substances (n = 50, 55.6%), expected substances (n = 44, 48.9%), new psychoactive substances (n = 40, 44.4%) and drugs of concern (n = 32, 36.5%) by drug checking services. CONCLUSIONS Drug checking services appear to influence behavioural intentions and the behaviour of people who use drugs, particularly when results from drug checking services are unexpected or drugs of concern. Monitoring of drug markets by drug checking services is well established in Europe, and increasingly in North America. Concerns about drug contents and negative health consequences facilitate the use of drug checking services; lack of concern; trust in drug sellers; lack of accessibility of drug checking services; and legal and privacy concerns are barriers to use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazlee Maghsoudi
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Institute of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Justine Tanguay
- Munk School of Global Affairs and Public PolicyUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Kristy Scarfone
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Leslie Dan Faculty of PharmacyUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Indhu Rammohan
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Institute of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | | | - Dan Werb
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Institute of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada,Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, School of MedicineUniversity of California San DiegoLa JollaCAUSA
| | - Ayden I. Scheim
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public HealthDrexel UniversityPhiladelphiaPAUSA
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de Moura FB, Sherwood A, Prisinzano TE, Paronis CA, Bergman J, Kohut SJ. Reinforcing effects of synthetic cathinones in rhesus monkeys: Dose-response and behavioral economic analyses. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 202:173112. [PMID: 33444603 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The abuse of synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") with psychomotor stimulant and/or entactogenic properties emerged as a public health concern when they were introduced as "legal" alternatives to drugs of abuse such as cocaine or MDMA. In this study, experiments were conducted in nonhuman primates to examine how differences in transporter selectivity might impact the reinforcing effects of synthetic cathinones. Rhesus monkeys (N = 5) were trained to respond for intravenous injections under a fixed-ratio (FR) 30, timeout 60-s schedule of reinforcement. The reinforcing effects of selected cathinones (e.g., MDPV, αPVP, MCAT, and methylone) with a range of pharmacological effects at dopamine and serotonin transporters were compared to cocaine and MDMA using dose-response analysis under a simple FR schedule and behavioral economic procedures that generated demand curves for two doses of each drug. Results show that one or more doses of all drugs were readily self-administered in each subject and, excepting MDMA (21 injections/session), peak levels of self-administration were similar across drugs (between 30 and 40 injections/session). Demand elasticity for the peak and the peak + 1/2-log dose of each drug did not significantly differ, and when data for the two doses were averaged for each drug, the following rank-order of reinforcing strength emerged: cocaine > MCAT = MDPV = methylone > αPVP = MDMA. These results indicate that the reinforcing strength of synthetic cathinones are not related to their selectivity in binding dopamine or serotonin transporter sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando B de Moura
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Carol A Paronis
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jack Bergman
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Stephen J Kohut
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Fan SY, Zang CZ, Shih PH, Ko YC, Hsu YH, Lin MC, Tseng SH, Wang DY. A LC-MS/MS method for determination of 73 synthetic cathinones and related metabolites in urine. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 315:110429. [PMID: 32784041 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, which are a group of β-keto analogs of phenethylamine, have been reported as the most emerging new psychoactive substances in the past decade. The quantity and variety of synthetic cathinones have continued to increase, which poses considerable risks to public health and social security. In this study, an analytical method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) was established for the simultaneous determination of 73 synthetic cathinones and related metabolites in urine. The chromatographic analysis was performed using a Kinetex® Biphenyl column (10 cm ×2.1 mm, 1.7 μm), applying a gradient mobile phase, comprising 0.1 % formic acid aqueous solution with 5 mM ammonium acetate and 0.1 % formic acid methanolic solution; the entire run time of the analysis was within 8 min. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was employed to collect the monitoring and quantitative ion pairs. Intra-day/inter-day precision and accuracy were less than 10 % for all the studied analytes. The limits of detection and quantification for all the analytes were 0.1-0.5 ng/mL and 0.5-1.0 ng/mL, respectively. The matrix effect was satisfactory for all the analytes, with a deviation lower than 20 %. The present method was further applied to 67 authentic urine samples in which 13 different synthetic cathinones were detected from 32 positive samples. The abuse of poly-synthetic cathinones was examined that up to seven items was detected in one case from authentic samples in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Yu Fan
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Zong Zang
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan.
| | - Po-Han Shih
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chun Ko
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Hui Hsu
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chih Lin
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
| | - Su-Hsiang Tseng
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
| | - Der-Yuan Wang
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, 161-2 Kunyang St., Nangang Dist., Taipei City, 11561, Taiwan
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5
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Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Keyes KM. Underreporting of drug use among electronic dance music party attendees. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2020; 59:185-192. [PMID: 32644026 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2020.1785488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Electronic dance music (EDM) party attendees are at high risk for drug use. However, little is known regarding the extent of underreporting of drug use in this population, in part, because use of synthetic drugs is often associated with unknown exposure to adulterant drugs. We estimated the extent of underreported drug use in this population by comparing self-reported use to hair toxicology results. METHODS Time-space sampling was used to survey adults entering EDM events at nightclubs and dance festivals in New York City from January through August of 2019. Seven hundred ninety-four adults were surveyed and 141 provided analyzable hair samples. We queried past-year use of >90 drugs and tested hair samples using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We compared hair test results to past-year self-reported use and adjusted prevalence estimates by defining use as reporting use or testing positive. Correlates of discordant reporting, defined as testing positive after not reporting use, were estimated. RESULTS Prevalence of drug use increased when considering positive hair tests in estimates, with 43.8% of participants testing positive for at least one drug after not reporting use. For example, based on self-report, cocaine use prevalence was 51.1%, and increased by a factor of 1.6 to a prevalence of 80.0% when adding hair test results to self-report. Younger adults (ages 18-25), black and other/mixed race participants, those reporting "other" sexuality, and those with a college degree were at significantly higher risk for testing positive for drugs not reportedly used. Those who self-reported using more types of drugs were less likely to test positive after not reporting use (adjusted prevalence ratio = 0.53, 95% confidence interval = 0.41-0.68). CONCLUSIONS We detected underreporting of drug use, particularly cocaine and ketamine. More research is needed to determine whether this is driven by intentional underreporting or unknown exposure through adulterants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Torino, Italy.,Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Katherine M Keyes
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Chen Y, Tran HTN, Saber YH, Hall FS. High ambient temperature increases the toxicity and lethality of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and methcathinone. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 192:172912. [PMID: 32201298 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and methcathinone (MCAT) are abused psychostimulant drugs that produce adverse effects in human users that include hepatotoxicity and death. Recent work has suggested a connection between hepatotoxicity, elevations in plasma ammonia, and brain glutamate function for methamphetamine (METH)-induced neurotoxicity. OBJECTIVES These experiments investigated the effect of ambient temperature on the toxicity and lethality produced by MDMA and MCAT in mice, and whether these effects might involve similar mechanisms to those described for METH neurotoxicity. RESULTS Under low (room temperature) ambient temperature conditions, MDMA induced hepatotoxicity, elevated plasma ammonia levels, and induced lethality. Under the same conditions, even a very high dose of MCAT produced limited toxic or lethal effects. High ambient temperature conditions potentiated the toxic and lethal effects of both MDMA and MCAT. CONCLUSION These studies suggest that hepatotoxicity, plasma ammonia, and brain glutamate function are involved in MDMA-induced lethality, as has been shown for METH neurotoxicity. The toxicity and lethality of both MDMA and MCAT were potentiated by high ambient temperatures. Although an initial mouse study reported that several cathinones were much less toxic than METH or MDMA, the present results suggest that it will be essential to assess the potential dangers posed by these drugs under high ambient temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacology and Pharmacological Science, University of Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Huyen T N Tran
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacology and Pharmacological Science, University of Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Yasir H Saber
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacology and Pharmacological Science, University of Toledo, OH, USA; Ninevah College of Medicine, Ninevah University, Mosul, Iraq
| | - F Scott Hall
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacology and Pharmacological Science, University of Toledo, OH, USA.
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7
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Synthetic psychoactive cathinones: hypothermia and reduced lethality compared to methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 191:172871. [PMID: 32061662 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Synthetic psychoactive cathinones (SPCs) are drugs with psychostimulant and entactogenic properties like methamphetamine (MA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Despite clinical reports of human overdose, it remains to be determined if SPCs have greater propensity for adverse effects than MA or MDMA. OBJECTIVES To determine whether the SPCs cathinone (CAT), methcathinone (MCAT), mephedrone (MMC), and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) have lower LD50 values than MA or MDMA. METHODS Male and female C57Bl/6J mice received single injections of one of 6 doses of a test drug (0-160 mg/kg IP). Temperature and behavioral observations were taken every 20 min for 2 h followed by euthanasia of surviving mice. Organs were weighed and evaluated for histopathological changes. RESULTS LD50 values for MA and MDMA, 84.5 and 100.9 mg/kg respectively, were similar to previous observations. The LD50 for MMC was 118.8 mg/kg, but limited lethality was observed for other SPCs (CAT, MCAT, MDPV), so LD50 values could not be calculated. For all drugs, death was associated with seizure, when it was observed. Rather than hyperthermia, dose-dependent hypothermia was observed for MMC, MDPV, CAT, and MCAT. Contrary to initial expectations, none of the SPCs studied here had LD50 values lower than MA or MDMA. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that, under the conditions studied here: (1) SPCs exhibit less lethality than MA and MDMA; (2) SPCs impair thermoregulation; (3) effects of SPCs on temperature appear to be independent of effects on lethality.
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8
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Maghsoudi N, McDonald K, Stefan C, Beriault DR, Mason K, Barnaby L, Altenberg J, MacDonald RD, Caldwell J, Nisenbaum R, Leece P, Watson TM, Tupper KW, Kufner L, Scheim AI, Werb D. Evaluating networked drug checking services in Toronto, Ontario: study protocol and rationale. Harm Reduct J 2020; 17:9. [PMID: 32204713 PMCID: PMC7092475 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-019-0336-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increasing incidence of fatal opioid overdose is a public health crisis in Canada. Given growing consensus that this crisis is related to the presence of highly potent opioid adulterants (e.g., fentanyl) in the unregulated drug supply, drug checking services (DCS) have emerged as part of a comprehensive approach to overdose prevention. In Canada's largest city, Toronto, a network of DCS launched in 2019 to prevent overdose and overdose-related risk behaviors. This network employs mass spectrometry technologies, with intake sites co-located with supervised consumption services (SCS) at three frontline harm reduction agencies. The protocol and rationale for assessing the impact of this multi-site DCS network in Toronto is described herein. The aims of this study are to (1) evaluate the impact of DCS access on changes in and factors influencing overdose and related risk behaviors, (2) investigate the perceived capacity of DCS to prevent overdose, and (3) identify composition (qualitative and quantitative) trends in Toronto's unregulated drug supply. METHODS We will use a parallel-mixed-methods design with complementary data sources (including data from chemical analysis of drug samples, quantitative intake and post-test surveys, SCS, coroners, paramedic services, and qualitative interviews), followed by a meta-inference process wherein results from analyses are synthesized. RESULTS Whereas most DCS globally target "recreational drug users," in Toronto, this networked DCS will primarily target marginalized people who use drugs accessing frontline services, many of whom use drugs regularly and by injection. This evolution in the application of DCS poses important questions that have not yet been explored, including optimal service delivery models and technologies, as well as unique barriers for this population. Increasing information on the unregulated drug supply may modify the risk environment for this population of people who use drugs. CONCLUSIONS This study addresses evidence gaps on the emerging continuum of overdose prevention responses and will generate critical evidence on a novel approach to reducing the ongoing high incidence of drug-related morbidity and mortality in Canada and elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Maghsoudi
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street Toronto, Ontario, M5B 1 W8, Canada
- Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - K McDonald
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street Toronto, Ontario, M5B 1 W8, Canada
| | - C Stefan
- Clinical Laboratory and Diagnostic Services, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - D R Beriault
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - K Mason
- South Riverdale Community Health Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - L Barnaby
- Parkdale Queen West Community Health Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - J Altenberg
- South Riverdale Community Health Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - R D MacDonald
- Toronto Paramedic Services, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - J Caldwell
- Toronto Public Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - R Nisenbaum
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions and Applied Health Research Centre, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - P Leece
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Public Health Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - T M Watson
- Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - K W Tupper
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - L Kufner
- Parkdale Queen West Community Health Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - A I Scheim
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street Toronto, Ontario, M5B 1 W8, Canada
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - D Werb
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street Toronto, Ontario, M5B 1 W8, Canada.
- Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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López-Rabuñal Á, Lendoiro E, Concheiro M, López-Rivadulla M, Cruz A, de-Castro-Ríos A. A LC-MS/MS method for the determination of common synthetic cathinones in meconium. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2019; 1124:349-355. [PMID: 31279971 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2019.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances have been introduced into the market in the last years due to their unregulated status. Synthetic cathinones are one of their main representatives, and they have shown to produce neonatal complications. It is important to have objective tools to identify in utero exposure to drugs that have shown to produce neonatal complications. An analytical method was developed and fully validated for the determination of common synthetic cathinones, including methylone, methedrone, mephedrone, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), (±)-4-fluoromethamphetamine and 4-fluoromethcathinone in meconium. Meconium (0.25 ± 0.02 g) was homogenized with methanol by sonication for 30 min. After centrifugation, the sample was extracted with Oasis MCX columns. The analysis was performed by LC-MS/MS using an Atlantis T3 column (3 μm, 2.1 × 50 mm) and a gradient with acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid in water. Method validation included the following parameters: selectivity (no endogenous or exogenous interferences), limits of detection (n = 3, 0.5-1 ng/g) and quantification (n = 3, 1-2 ng/g), linearity (n = 5, LOQ-200 ng/g), imprecision (n = 15, 0% to 10%), accuracy (n = 15, 87.3% to 97.8%), matrix effect (n = 10, -76% to -28.1%), extraction efficiency (n = 6, 63.7% to 91.3%), total process efficiency (n = 6, 16% to 60.2%) and stability for 72 h in the autosampler (n = 3, %loss = -6.7% to 5.1%). The method was applied to 28 meconium specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángela López-Rabuñal
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Elena Lendoiro
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Marta Concheiro
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, USA.
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Angelines Cruz
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Ana de-Castro-Ríos
- Servizo de Toxicoloxía, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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10
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Oliver CF, Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Simmons SJ, Philogene-Khalid HL, Stokes-McCloskey N, Rawls SM. Synthetic cathinone adulteration of illegal drugs. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:869-879. [PMID: 30338489 PMCID: PMC6472990 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5066-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Current prevalence estimates of synthetic cathinone ("bath salt") use may be underestimates given that traditional metrics (e.g., surveys, urinalysis) often fail to capture the emergent issue of synthetic cathinone adulteration of more common illegal drugs, such as ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). OBJECTIVES This review examines the evolution of synthetic cathinones and prevalence of use over the past decade in the United States. We also review methods of self-report and biological testing of these compounds as well as adverse outcomes associated with adulterated drug use. RESULTS Synthetic cathinone use emerged in the United States by 2009 with use associated with tens of thousands of poisonings. Reported poisonings and self-reported use have substantially decreased over the past five years. However, our review suggests that current estimates of use are underestimates due to underreporting stemming primarily from unknown or unintentional use of adulterated formulations of relatively popular illegal drugs, such as ecstasy. CONCLUSIONS While intentional synthetic cathinone use has decreased in recent years, evidence suggests that prevalence of use is underestimated. Testing of drugs and/or biological specimens can improve the accuracy of synthetic cathinone use estimates. Furthermore, we advocate that researchers and clinicians should become better aware that exposure to these potent compounds (e.g., as adulterants) often occurs unknowingly or unintentionally. To improve our understanding of synthetic cathinone adulteration, research utilizing a combinatorial approach (survey and biological testing) will help more accurately estimate the prevalence and impact of this public health issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chicora F Oliver
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, 882A, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA.
| | - Joseph J Palamar
- Department of Population Health, 180 Madison Avenue Room 1752, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Centro Regionale Antidoping "A. Bertinaria", Regione Gonzole 10/1, 10043, Orbassano, Torino, Italy
| | - Steven J Simmons
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, 882A, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Helene L Philogene-Khalid
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, 882A, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, 100 E. Lehigh Ave, Philadelphia, PA, 19125, USA
| | - Nick Stokes-McCloskey
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, 882A, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
| | - Scott M Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, 882A, Philadelphia, PA, 19140, USA
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11
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Behavioral economic analysis of the reinforcing effects of "bath salts" mixtures: studies with MDPV, methylone, and caffeine in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1031-1041. [PMID: 30267131 PMCID: PMC6440875 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5046-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE "Bath salts" preparations often contain combinations of synthetic cathinones (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone [methylone], 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone [MDPV]), and caffeine, and evidence suggests that mixtures of synthetic cathinones and caffeine (e.g., MDPV + caffeine or methylone + caffeine) can be more potent and/or effective reinforcers than predicted for an additive interaction. OBJECTIVE To use demand curve analyses to compare the reinforcing effectiveness of MDPV and methylone to mixtures of MDPV + caffeine and methylone + caffeine. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats acquired methylone self-administration (0.32 mg/kg/inf) under a fixed ratio (FR) 1 schedule of reinforcement and generated full dose-response curves for methylone (0.01-1 mg/kg/inf) under an FR5 schedule of reinforcement. Demand curves were then obtained for methylone, MDPV, caffeine, and methylone + caffeine and MDPV + caffeine mixtures by increasing the FR across sessions according to the following series: 3, 10, 18, 32, 56, 100, 178, etc. RESULTS: Self-administration of methylone was rapidly acquired by 87.5% of rats and was maintained across a range of doses, producing an inverted U-shaped dose-response curve. Rank order demand for the individual constituents was MDPV > methylone > caffeine. Demand for the 3:1 (but not 10:1) methylone + caffeine mixture was greater than that for methylone alone, and demand for MDPV alone was similar to both MDPV + caffeine mixtures evaluated. CONCLUSIONS These studies provide additional evidence that although methylone is an effective reinforcer, combining methylone with caffeine results in an enhanced reinforcing effectiveness compared to methylone alone. Thus, abused "bath salts" preparations containing synthetic cathinones and caffeine may have higher abuse liability than preparations containing only synthetic cathinones.
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12
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Krotulski AJ, Mohr ALA, Papsun DM, Logan BK. Dibutylone (bk-DMBDB): Intoxications, Quantitative Confirmations and Metabolism in Authentic Biological Specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:437-445. [PMID: 29554274 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The number of emerging novel stimulants modified based on beta-keto variations of amphetamine-like substances continues to rise. Dibutylone reports described in the medical and toxicological literature are limited, therefore little information is available in terms of quantitative confirmation or metabolism. During this study, authentic human specimens, including blood, urine, vitreous humor, oral fluid and liver were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed for the presence of dibutylone and butylone, with paired case history and demographic information. Dibutylone concentrations were variable across all specimen types, specifically ranging from 10 to 1,400 ng/mL in postmortem blood specimens. The metabolic profile of dibutylone was mapped by in vitro incubation with human liver microsomes (HLM). Samples were analyzed using a SCIEX TripleTOF® 5600+ quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Data processing was conducted using MetabolitePilot™. Authentic human specimens, including blood, urine, vitreous humor, oral fluid and liver, were utilized for in vivo verification of five HLM-generated metabolites in analytically confirmed cases of dibutylone use. Butylone was confirmed as a metabolite of dibutylone, but issues involving co-ingestion of these two novel stimulants or potential co-existence from synthesis lead to ineffectiveness as a true biomarker. Hydrogenation of the beta-ketone of dibutylone resulted in the most prominent metabolite found in human specimens, and its uniqueness to dibutylone over other stimulants leads to its classification as an appropriate biomarker for dibutylone ingestion. This is the first study to map the metabolic profile of dibutylone, including verification in authentic specimens, confirming metabolic conversion to butylone and identifying biomarkers more useful in forensic toxicological drug testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | | | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA.,NMS Labs, 3701 Welsh Rd, Willow Grove, PA, USA
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13
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Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Cleland CM, Sherman S. Willingness to provide a hair sample for drug testing among electronic dance music party attendees. Subst Abus 2018; 40:116-123. [PMID: 29694301 DOI: 10.1080/08897077.2018.1469106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Background: Nondisclosure of drug use on surveys is common, and many drug users unknowingly ingest adulterant or replacement drugs, which leads to underreporting of use of these drugs. Biological testing can complement survey research, and hair testing is an appealing method, as many drugs are detectable for months post-use. We examined willingness to donate a hair sample to be tested among those surveyed in a population at high risk for consuming adulterated drugs-electronic dance music (EDM) party attendees. Methods: We surveyed 933 adults entering EDM parties in New York City in 2017. Hair donation response rates and reasons for refusal were examined from this cross-sectional study. Results: A third (n = 312; 33.4%) provided a hair sample. Lack of interest (21.0%), lack of time (19.8%), not wanting a lock of hair cut (17.7%), and disinterest in having hair cut in public (13.8%) were the main reported reasons for refusal; 4.7% refused because they could not receive results. Past-year drug users were more likely to fear identification than nonusers (P < .001). Asian participants were at lower odds of providing a hair sample (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.53, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.32-0.87), and those reporting past-year use of LSD (aOR = 1.62, 95% CI = 1.11-2.35), opioids (nonmedical; aOR = 1.93, 95% CI = 1.25-2.99), and/or methamphetamine (aOR = 3.43, 95% CI = 1.36-8.62) were at higher odds of providing a sample than nonusers of these drugs. Conclusions: Only a third of participants provided a hair sample, and we found individual-level differences regarding willingness to provide a sample. Factors contributing to refusal should be considered to increase response rates and generalizability of results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York, New York , USA.,b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York, New York , USA
| | - Alberto Salomone
- c Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria" , Orbassano, Turin , Italy
| | - Charles M Cleland
- b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York, New York , USA
| | - Scott Sherman
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York, New York , USA.,b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York, New York , USA
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14
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Gannon BM, Galindo KI, Mesmin MP, Rice KC, Collins GT. Reinforcing Effects of Binary Mixtures of Common Bath Salt Constituents: Studies with 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), 3,4-Methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone), and Caffeine in Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:761-769. [PMID: 28677665 PMCID: PMC5809783 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Bath salts use is associated with high rates of abuse, toxicity, and death. Bath salt preparations often contain mixtures of drugs including multiple synthetic cathinones (eg, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) or 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone)) or synthetic cathinones and caffeine; however, little is known about whether interactions among bath salt constituents contribute to the abuse-related effects of bath salts preparations. This study used male Sprague-Dawley rats responding under a progressive ratio schedule to quantify the reinforcing effectiveness of MDPV, methylone, and caffeine, administered alone and as binary mixtures (n=12 per mixture). Each mixture was evaluated at four ratios (10 : 1, 3 : 1, 1 : 1, and 1 : 3) relative to the mean ED50 for each drug alone. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the predicted, additive effect for each dose pair within each drug mixture. MDPV, methylone, and caffeine maintained responding in a dose-dependent manner, with MDPV being the most potent and effective, and caffeine being the least potent and effective of the three bath salts constituents. High levels of responding were also maintained by each of the bath salts mixtures. Although the nature of the interactions tended toward additivity for most bath salts mixtures, supra-additive (3 : 1 MDPV : caffeine, and 3 : 1 and 1 : 1 methylone : caffeine) and sub-additive (3 : 1, 1 : 1, and 1 : 3 MDPV : methylone) interactions were also observed. Together, these findings demonstrate that the composition of bath salts preparations can have an impact on both their reinforcing potency and effectiveness, and suggest that such interactions among constituent drugs could contribute to the patterns of use and effects reported by human bath salts users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda M Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Kayla I Galindo
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Melson P Mesmin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA,South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA,Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, MC# 7764, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA, Tel: +1 210 567 4199, Fax: +1 210 567 1581, E-mail:
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15
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Health and Social Problems Associated with Recent Novel Psychoactive Substance (NPS) Use Amongst Marginalised, Nightlife and Online Users in Six European Countries. Int J Ment Health Addict 2017; 16:480-495. [PMID: 29674947 PMCID: PMC5897487 DOI: 10.1007/s11469-017-9824-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Continued diversification and use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) across Europe remains a public health challenge. The study describes health and social consequences of recent NPS use as reported in a survey of marginalised, nightlife and online NPS users in the Netherlands, Hungary, Portugal, Ireland, Germany and Poland (n = 3023). Some respondents were unable to categorise NPS they had used. Use of ‘herbal blends’ and ‘synthetic cannabinoids obtained pure’ was most reported in Germany, Poland and Hungary, and use of ‘branded stimulants’ and ‘stimulants/empathogens/nootropics obtained pure’ was most reported in the Netherlands. Increased heart rate and palpitation, dizziness, anxiety, horror trips and headaches were most commonly reported acute side effects. Marginalised users reported substantially more acute side effects, more mid- and long-term mental and physical problems, and more social problems. Development of country-specific NPS awareness raising initiatives, health and social service needs assessments, and targeted responses are warranted.
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16
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Smith DA, Negus SS, Poklis JL, Blough BE, Banks ML. Cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects of alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, methcathinone and their 3,4-methylenedioxy or 4-methyl analogs in rhesus monkeys. Addict Biol 2017; 22:1169-1178. [PMID: 27060605 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are beta-ketone amphetamine analogs that have emerged as a heterogeneous class of abused compounds that function as either monoamine transporter substrates or inhibitors. Pre-clinical drug discrimination procedures are useful for interrogating structure-activity relationships of abuse-related drug effects; however, in vivo structure-activity relationship comparisons between synthetic cathinones with different mechanisms of action are lacking. The aim of the present study was to determine whether the cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects of the monoamine transporter inhibitor alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP) and the monoamine transporter substrate methcathinone were differentially sensitive to 3,4-methylenedioxy and 4-methyl substitutions. Male rhesus monkeys (n = 4) were trained to discriminate intramuscular cocaine (0.32 mg/kg) from saline in a two-key food-reinforced discrimination procedure. Potency and timecourse of cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects were determined for (±)-alpha-PVP, (±)-methcathinone and their 3,4-methylenedioxy or 4-methyl analogs. Alpha-PVP and methcathinone produced dose- and time-dependent cocaine-like effects. A 3,4-methylenedioxy addition to either alpha-PVP or methcathinone (methylone) did not alter the potency or efficacy to produce cocaine-like effects, but did prolong the time course. A 4-methyl addition to alpha-PVP (pyrovalerone) did not alter the potency or efficacy to produce cocaine-like effects, but did prolong the time course. In contrast, addition of a 4-methyl moiety to methcathinone (4MMC; mephedrone) significantly attenuated efficacy to produce cocaine-like effects. Overall, these results suggest different structural requirements for cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects of monoamine transporter inhibitor and substrate synthetic cathinone analogs. Given that 4MMC is more hydrophobic than MDMC, these results suggest that hydrophobicity may be an important determinant for limiting monoamine transporter substrate abuse-related behavioral effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas A. Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; Virginia Commonwealth University; Richmond VA USA 23298
| | - S. Stevens Negus
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; Virginia Commonwealth University; Richmond VA USA 23298
- Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies; Virginia Commonwealth University; Richmond VA USA 23298
| | - Justin L. Poklis
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; Virginia Commonwealth University; Richmond VA USA 23298
| | - Bruce E. Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery; Research Triangle Institute; Research Triangle Park NC USA 27709
| | - Matthew L. Banks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology; Virginia Commonwealth University; Richmond VA USA 23298
- Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies; Virginia Commonwealth University; Richmond VA USA 23298
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17
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Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Gerace E, Di Corcia D, Vincenti M, Cleland CM. Hair testing to assess both known and unknown use of drugs amongst ecstasy users in the electronic dance music scene. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2017; 48:91-98. [PMID: 28810159 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 06/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Data on both known and unknown drug use in the electronic dance music (EDM) scene is important to inform prevention and harm reduction. While surveys are the most common method of querying drug use, additional biological data can help validate use and detect unknown/unintentional use of drugs such as new psychoactive substances (NPS). We sought to determine the extent of both known and unknown use of various substances in this high-risk scene. METHODS We hair-tested 90 self-reported past-year ecstasy/MDMA/Molly users attending EDM parties in New York City during the summer of 2016 using UHPLC-MS/MS. Results were compared to self-reported past-year use. RESULTS Three quarters (74.4%) tested positive for MDMA, a third (33.3%) tested positive for an NPS, and 27.8% tested positive specifically for one or more synthetic cathinones (e.g., butylone, ethylone, pentylone, methylone, alpha-PVP). Half (51.1%) of participants tested positive for a drug not self-reported, with most testing positive for synthetic cathinones (72.0%), methamphetamine (69.0%), other NPS stimulants (e.g., 4-FA, 5/6-APB; 66.7%), or new dissociatives (e.g., methoxetamine, diphenidine; 60.0%). Attending parties every other week or more often, reporting higher-frequency ecstasy pill use, having tested one's ecstasy, and having found out one's ecstasy was adulterated, were risk factors for testing positive for synthetic cathinones and NPS in general. CONCLUSION Hair testing appears to be a valuable addition to drug epidemiology studies. Many EDM party attendees-even those who test their ecstasy-are unknowingly using NPS and/or other drugs. Prevention information and harm reduction may help reduce unknown/unintentional use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- New York University Langone Medical Center, Department of Population Health, New York, NY, USA; Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Enrico Gerace
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Daniele Di Corcia
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy; Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Charles M Cleland
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA; New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA
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18
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Brephedrone: A new psychoactive substance seized in Brazil. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 275:302-307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Palma-Conesa ÁJ, Ventura M, Galindo L, Fonseca F, Grifell M, Quintana P, Fornís I, Gil C, Farré M, Torrens M. Something New about Something Old: A 10-Year Follow-Up on Classical and New Psychoactive Tryptamines and Results of Analysis. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017; 49:297-305. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1320732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro José Palma-Conesa
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Predoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Collaborator, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Manager, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Liliana Galindo
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Consultant Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Postdoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Senior Consultant, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Assistant Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Grifell
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Predoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Quintana
- Collaborator, Resident Family Medicine, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iván Fornís
- Consultant, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gil
- Technician, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Senior Consultant, Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trías i Pujol, Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Badalona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Senior Consultant, Addiction Program, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
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Palamar JJ, Acosta P, Calderón FF, Sherman S, Cleland CM. Assessing self-reported use of new psychoactive substances: The impact of gate questions. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2017; 43:609-617. [PMID: 28485987 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2017.1322094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPS) continue to emerge; however, few surveys of substance use ask about NPS use. Research is needed to determine how to most effectively query use of NPS and other uncommon drugs. OBJECTIVE To determine whether prevalence of self-reported lifetime and past-year use differs depending on whether or not queries about NPS use are preceded by "gate questions." Gate questions utilize skip-logic, such that only a "yes" response to the use of specific drug class is followed by more extensive queries of drug use in that drug class. METHODS We surveyed 1,048 nightclub and dance festival attendees (42.6% female) entering randomly selected venues in New York City in 2016. Participants were randomized to gate vs. no gate question before each drug category. Analyses focus on eight categories classifying 145 compounds: NBOMe, 2C, DOx, "bath salts" (synthetic cathinones), other stimulants, tryptamines, dissociatives, and non-phenethylamine psychedelics. Participants, however, were asked about specific "bath salts" regardless of their response to the gate question to test reliability. We examined whether prevalence of use of each category differed by gate condition and whether gate effects were moderated by participant demographics. RESULTS Prevalence of use of DOx, other stimulants, and non-phenethylamine psychedelics was higher without a gate question. Gate effects for other stimulants and non-phenethylamine psychedelics were larger among white participants and those attending parties less frequently. Almost one in ten (9.3%) participants reporting no "bath salt" use via the gate question later reported use of a "bath salt" such as mephedrone, methedrone, or methylone. CONCLUSION Omitting gate questions may improve accuracy of data collected via self-report.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY , USA.,b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA
| | - Patricia Acosta
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY , USA
| | - Fermín Fernández Calderón
- c Department of Clinical , Experimental and Social Psychology, University of Huelva , Huelva , Spain
| | - Scott Sherman
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY , USA.,b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA
| | - Charles M Cleland
- b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA.,d New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA
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21
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Grifell M, Ventura M, Carbón X, Quintana P, Galindo L, Palma Á, Fornis I, Gil C, Farre M, Torrens M. Patterns of use and toxicity of new para-halogenated substituted cathinones: 4-CMC (clephedrone), 4-CEC (4-chloroethcatinone) and 4-BMC (brephedrone). Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28657185 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This paper aims to present results of the analysis of clephedrone (4-CMC), 4-chloroethcathinone (4-CEC), and brephedrone (4-BMC) on recreational drug markets and a systematic review of all the available information concerning these substances. MATERIAL AND METHODS Samples collected by the drug checking service of the Spanish harm reduction NGO-Energy Control were analyzed and systematic research was conducted. Between June 2014 and October 2016, 1,471 samples with at least one NPS were analyzed, 397 of which contained cathinones. RESULTS Clephedrone was found in 29 samples, brephedrone in 8, and both were present in 2 samples. 4-Chloroethcathinone was detected in 5 samples. Eleven out of the 47 purchased samples (23.4%) were tested to contain the substance the user expected. Samples received were mainly sold as 3-MMC, MDMA, ketamine, and other cathinones. No literature on the effects or toxicity of these substances was found; the only information available was on internet fora. On many posts, users exhibit concerns about potential toxicity and side effects of using these substances. CONCLUSION Since the emergence of these substances could prove to be the next step to the cat-and-mouse game existing between drug producers and legislation, further clinical and epidemiological research should be carried out in order to build evidence to support policy for public health issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Grifell
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain.,Unitat de Recerca en Neurociencia Cognitiva, Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallés, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xoán Carbón
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Quintana
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Liliana Galindo
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Álvaro Palma
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ivan Fornis
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gil
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magi Farre
- Pharmacology, Consorci Mar Parc de salut de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Ringgold Standard Institution, Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain.,Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol Ringgold Standard Institution, Badalona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica, s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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22
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Miner NB, O'Callaghan JP, Phillips TJ, Janowsky A. The combined effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and selected substituted methcathinones on measures of neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2017; 61:74-81. [PMID: 28212938 PMCID: PMC5453829 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The rise in popularity of substituted methcathinones (aka "bath salts") has increased the focus on their neurotoxic effects. Two commonly abused methcathinones, 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone, MDMC) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), are often concomitantly ingested with the illicit drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). To examine potential neurotoxic effects of these drug combinations, C57BL/6J mice were administered 4 i.p. injection of the drugs, at 2h intervals, either singularly: MDMA 15 or 30mg/kg, methylone 20mg/kg, MDPV 1mg/kg; or in combination: methylone/MDMA 20/15mg/kg, MDPV/MDMA 1/15mg/kg. Drug effects on thermoregulation were characterized and striatal tissue analyzed after 2 or 7days for dopamine (DA) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels, as well as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. Two days following drug administration, DA and TH were decreased only in the MDMA 30mg/kg group, whereas GFAP expression was dose-dependently increased by MDMA alone. While the combination of the methcathinones with the lower MDMA dose did not affect DA or TH levels, both blocked the MDMA-induced increase in GFAP expression. Seven days following drug administration, there were no significant differences in DA, TH, or GFAP for any treatment group, indicating that changes in DA, TH, and GFAP were transient. Five of the six drug groups exhibited acute hypothermia followed by gradually increasing temperatures. Animals treated with MDPV did not exhibit these biphasic temperature changes, and resembled the saline group. These results indicate that specific effects of both methylone and MDPV on DA depletion or astrocyte activation in the striatum are not additive with effects of MDMA, but block astrogliosis caused by MDMA alone. Additionally, MDPV modulates thermoregulation through a different mechanism than methylone or MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Miner
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, USA; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - James P O'Callaghan
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Tamara J Phillips
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, USA; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; The Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Aaron Janowsky
- Research Service, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, USA; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; The Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
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23
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Belackova V, Vacek J, Janikova B, Mravcik V, Zabransky T, Ivanovova L, Csemy L. “Just another drug” for marginalized users: The risks of using synthetic cathinones among NSP clients in the Czech Republic. JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE USE 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/14659891.2016.1271034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vendula Belackova
- Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General Teaching Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Vacek
- Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General Teaching Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Barbara Janikova
- Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General Teaching Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Viktor Mravcik
- Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General Teaching Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
- National Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Zabransky
- Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General Teaching Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Ivanovova
- Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General Teaching Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ladislav Csemy
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
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24
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Van Hout MC, Hearne E. New psychoactive substances (NPS) on cryptomarket fora: An exploratory study of characteristics of forum activity between NPS buyers and vendors. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2016; 40:102-110. [PMID: 28027812 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The continual diversification of new psychoactive substances (NPS) circumventing legislation creates a public health and law enforcement challenge, and one particularly challenged by availability on Hidden Web cryptomarkets. METHODS This is the first study of its kind which aimed to explore and characterise cryptomarket forum members' views and perspectives on NPS vendors and products within the context of Hidden Web community dynamics. An internal site search was conducted on two cryptomarkets popular with NPS vendors and hosting fora; Alphabay and Valhalla, using the search terms of 40 popular NPS in the seven categories of stimulant/cathinone; GABA activating; hallucinogen, dissociative, cannabinoid, opioid and other/unspecified/uncategorised NPS. 852 identified threads relating to the discussion of these NPS were generated. Following exclusion of duplicates, 138 threads remained. The Empirical Phenomenological Psychological method of data analysis was applied. Four themes and 32 categories emerged. RESULTS 120 vendors selling NPS were visible on Alphabay, and 21 on Valhalla. Themes were 'NPS Cryptomarkets and Crypto-community interest in NPS'; 'Motives for NPS use'; 'Indigenous Crypto Community Harm Reduction'; and 'Cryptomarket Characteristics underpinning NPS trafficking', with two higher levels of abstraction centring on 'NPS vendor reputation' and 'NPS transactioning for personal use'. NPS cryptomarket characteristics centred on generation of trust, honesty and excellent service. Users appeared well informed, with harm reduction and vendor information exchange central to NPS market dynamics. GABA activating substances appeared most popular in terms of buyer interest on cryptomarkets. Interest in sourcing 'old favorite' stimulant and dissociative NPS was evident, alongside the sequential and concurrent poly use of NPS, and use of NPS with illicit drugs such as MDMA. CONCLUSION Continued monitoring of new trends in NPS within Surface Web and cryptomarkets are warranted. A particular focus on the rising market in prescribed benzodiazepine and Z-hypnotic drugs should be included.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Evelyn Hearne
- School of Health Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland
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25
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The Dynamic Landscape of Novel Psychoactive Substance (NPS) Use in Ireland: Results from an Expert Consultation. Int J Ment Health Addict 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11469-016-9714-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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26
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Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Reed JF, Kim SO, Swanson T, Johnson RA, Janowsky A. Structure-Activity Relationships of Substituted Cathinones, with Transporter Binding, Uptake, and Release. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2016; 360:33-47. [PMID: 27799294 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.236349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are components of "bath salts" and have physical and psychologic side effects, including hypertension, paranoia, and hallucinations. Here, we report interactions of 20 "bath salt" components with human dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transporters [human dopamine transporter (hDAT), human serotonin transporter (hSERT), and human norepinephrine transporter (hNET), respectively] heterologously expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Transporter inhibitors had nanomolar to micromolar affinities (Ki values) at radioligand binding sites, with relative affinities of hDAT>hNET>hSERT for α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (α-PPP), α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone, α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone, 1-phenyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-heptanone, 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone, 4-methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, 4-methoxy-α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, α-pyrrolidinopentiothiophenone (alpha-PVT), and α-methylaminovalerophenone, and hDAT>hSERT>hNET for methylenedioxypentedrone. Increasing the α-carbon chain length increased the affinity and potency of the α-pyrrolidinophenones. Uptake inhibitors had relative potencies of hDAT>hNET>hSERT except α-PPP and α-PVT, which had highest potencies at hNET. They did not induce [3H]neurotransmitter release. Substrates can enter presynaptic neurons via transporters, and the substrates methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine are neurotoxic. We determined that 3-fluoro-, 4-bromo-, 4-chloro-methcathinone, and 4-fluoroamphetamine were substrates at all three transporters; 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) were substrates primarily at hSERT and hNET; and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylcathinone (ethylone) and 5-methoxy-methylone were substrates only at hSERT and induced [3H]neurotransmitter release. Significant correlations between potencies for inhibition of uptake and for inducing release were observed for these and additional substrates. The excellent correlation of efficacy at stimulating release versus Ki/IC50 ratios suggested thresholds of binding/uptake ratios above which compounds were likely to be substrates. Based on their potencies at hDAT, most of these compounds have potential for abuse and addiction. 4-Bromomethcathinone, 4-MEC, 5-methoxy-methylone, ethylone, and MDAI, which have higher potencies at hSERT than hDAT, may have empathogen psychoactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy J Eshleman
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Katherine M Wolfrum
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - John F Reed
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Sunyoung O Kim
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Tracy Swanson
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Robert A Johnson
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Aaron Janowsky
- Research Service, Portland VA Health Care System (A.J.E., K.M.W., J.F.R., S.O.K., T.S., R.A.J., A.J.), Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (A.J.E., A.J.), and Methamphetamine Abuse Research Center (T.S., A.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
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27
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Collins GT, Abbott M, Galindo K, Rush EL, Rice KC, France CP. Discriminative Stimulus Effects of Binary Drug Mixtures: Studies with Cocaine, MDPV, and Caffeine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2016; 359:1-10. [PMID: 27493274 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.234252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Illicit drug preparations often include more than one pharmacologically active compound. For example, cocaine and synthetic cathinones [e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV)] are often mixed with caffeine before sale. Caffeine is likely added to these preparations because it is inexpensive and legal; however, caffeine might also mimic or enhance some of the effects of cocaine or MDPV. In these studies, male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate 10 mg/kg cocaine from saline, and the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine, caffeine, and MDPV were evaluated alone and as binary mixtures (cocaine and caffeine, MDPV and caffeine, and cocaine and MDPV) at fixed-dose ratios of 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3 relative to the dose of each drug that produced 50% cocaine-appropriate responding. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the nature of the drug-drug interactions for each mixture (e.g., additive, supra-additive, or subadditive). Although additive interactions were observed for most mixtures, supra-additive interactions were observed at the 50% effect level for the 1:1 mixture of cocaine and caffeine and at the 80% effect level for all three mixtures of cocaine and caffeine, as well as for the 3:1 and 1:3 mixtures of cocaine and MDPV. These results demonstrate that with respect to cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects, caffeine can function as a substitute in drug preparations containing either cocaine or MDPV, with enhancements of cocaine-like effects possible under certain conditions. Further research is needed to determine whether similar interactions exist for other abuse-related or toxic effects of drug preparations, including cocaine, synthetic cathinones, and caffeine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory T Collins
- Departments of Pharmacology (G.T.C., M.A., K.G., E.L.R., C.P.F.) and Psychiatry (C.P.F.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and South Texas Veterans Health Care System (G.T.C.), San Antonio, Texas; and Chemical Biology Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland (K.C.R.)
| | - Megan Abbott
- Departments of Pharmacology (G.T.C., M.A., K.G., E.L.R., C.P.F.) and Psychiatry (C.P.F.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and South Texas Veterans Health Care System (G.T.C.), San Antonio, Texas; and Chemical Biology Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland (K.C.R.)
| | - Kayla Galindo
- Departments of Pharmacology (G.T.C., M.A., K.G., E.L.R., C.P.F.) and Psychiatry (C.P.F.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and South Texas Veterans Health Care System (G.T.C.), San Antonio, Texas; and Chemical Biology Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland (K.C.R.)
| | - Elise L Rush
- Departments of Pharmacology (G.T.C., M.A., K.G., E.L.R., C.P.F.) and Psychiatry (C.P.F.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and South Texas Veterans Health Care System (G.T.C.), San Antonio, Texas; and Chemical Biology Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland (K.C.R.)
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Departments of Pharmacology (G.T.C., M.A., K.G., E.L.R., C.P.F.) and Psychiatry (C.P.F.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and South Texas Veterans Health Care System (G.T.C.), San Antonio, Texas; and Chemical Biology Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland (K.C.R.)
| | - Charles P France
- Departments of Pharmacology (G.T.C., M.A., K.G., E.L.R., C.P.F.) and Psychiatry (C.P.F.), University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and South Texas Veterans Health Care System (G.T.C.), San Antonio, Texas; and Chemical Biology Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, Maryland (K.C.R.)
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Smith PR, Cole R, Hamilton S, West K, Morley SR, Maskell PD. Reporting Two Fatalities Associated with the Use of 4-Methylethcathinone (4-MEC) and a Review of the Literature. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 40:553-60. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Vincenti M, Cleland CM. Detection of "bath salts" and other novel psychoactive substances in hair samples of ecstasy/MDMA/"Molly" users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 161:200-5. [PMID: 26883685 PMCID: PMC4792679 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecstasy (MDMA) in the US is commonly adulterated with other drugs, but research has not focused on purity of ecstasy since the phenomenon of "Molly" (ecstasy marketed as pure MDMA) arose in the US. METHODS We piloted a rapid electronic survey in 2015 to assess use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) and other drugs among 679 nightclub/festival-attending young adults (age 18-25) in New York City. A quarter (26.1%) of the sample provided a hair sample to be analyzed for the presence of select synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") and some other NPS. Samples were analyzed using fully validated UHPLC-MS/MS methods. To examine consistency of self-report, analyses focused on the 48 participants with an analyzable hair sample who reported lifetime ecstasy/MDMA/Molly use. RESULTS Half (50.0%) of the hair samples contained MDMA, 47.9% contained butylone, and 10.4% contained methylone. Of those who reported no lifetime use of "bath salts", stimulant NPS, or unknown pills or powders, about four out of ten (41.2%) tested positive for butylone, methylone, alpha-PVP, 5/6-APB, or 4-FA. Racial minorities were more likely to test positive for butylone or test positive for NPS after reporting no lifetime use. Frequent nightclub/festival attendance was the strongest predictor of testing positive for MDMA, butylone, or methylone. DISCUSSION Results suggest that many ecstasy-using nightclub/festival attendees may be unintentionally using "bath salts" or other NPS. Prevention and harm reduction education is needed for this population and "drug checking" (e.g., pill testing) may be beneficial for those rejecting abstinence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- New York University Langone Medical Center, Department of Population Health, New York, NY, USA; Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy; Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Charles M Cleland
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA; New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA
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30
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Thai PK, Lai FY, Edirisinghe M, Hall W, Bruno R, O'Brien JW, Prichard J, Kirkbride KP, Mueller JF. Monitoring temporal changes in use of two cathinones in a large urban catchment in Queensland, Australia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 545-546:250-255. [PMID: 26747989 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater analysis was used to examine prevalence and temporal trends in the use of two cathinones, methylone and mephedrone, in an urban population (>200,000 people) in South East Queensland, Australia. Wastewater samples were collected from the inlet of the sewage treatment plant that serviced the catchment from 2011 to 2013. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to measure mephedrone and methylone in wastewater sample using direct injection mode. Mephedrone was not detected in any samples while methylone was detected in 45% of the samples. Daily mass loads of methylone were normalized to the population and used to evaluate methylone use in the catchment. Methylone mass loads peaked in 2012 but there was no clear temporal trend over the monitoring period. The prevalence of methylone use in the catchment was associated with the use of MDMA, the more popular analogue of methylone, as indicated by other complementary sources. Methylone use was stable in the study catchment during the monitoring period whereas mephedrone use has been declining after its peak in 2010. More research is needed on the pharmacokinetics of emerging illicit drugs to improve the applicability of wastewater analysis in monitoring their use in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phong K Thai
- Queensland University of Technology, Garden Point, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia; The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Methsiri Edirisinghe
- Queensland Health Forensic Scientific Services, Queensland Government, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- The University of Queensland, Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD 4029, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 30, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Jeremy Prichard
- Faculty of Law, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 89, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - K Paul Kirkbride
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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Namera A, Kawamura M, Nakamoto A, Saito T, Nagao M. Comprehensive review of the detection methods for synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones. Forensic Toxicol 2015. [PMID: 26257831 DOI: 10.1007/211419-015-0270-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A number of N-alkyl indole or indazole-3-carbonyl analogs, with modified chemical structures, are distributed throughout the world as synthetic cannabinoids. Like synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone analogs are also abused and cause serious problems worldwide. Acute deaths caused by overdoses of these drugs have been reported. Various analytical methods that can cope with the rapid changes in chemical structures are required for routine analysis and screening of these drugs in seized and biological materials for forensic and clinical purposes. Although many chromatographic methods to analyze each drug have been published, there are only a few articles summarizing these analytical methods. This review presents the various colorimetric detections, immunochemical assays, gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods, and liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods proposed for the analysis of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Namera
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553 Japan
| | - Maho Kawamura
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Hiroshima Prefectural Police Headquarters, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Akihiro Nakamoto
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Hiroshima Prefectural Police Headquarters, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takeshi Saito
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Japan
| | - Masataka Nagao
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553 Japan
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Namera A, Kawamura M, Nakamoto A, Saito T, Nagao M. Comprehensive review of the detection methods for synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones. Forensic Toxicol 2015; 33:175-194. [PMID: 26257831 PMCID: PMC4525208 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-015-0270-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A number of N-alkyl indole or indazole-3-carbonyl analogs, with modified chemical structures, are distributed throughout the world as synthetic cannabinoids. Like synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone analogs are also abused and cause serious problems worldwide. Acute deaths caused by overdoses of these drugs have been reported. Various analytical methods that can cope with the rapid changes in chemical structures are required for routine analysis and screening of these drugs in seized and biological materials for forensic and clinical purposes. Although many chromatographic methods to analyze each drug have been published, there are only a few articles summarizing these analytical methods. This review presents the various colorimetric detections, immunochemical assays, gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods, and liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods proposed for the analysis of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Namera
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553 Japan
| | - Maho Kawamura
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Hiroshima Prefectural Police Headquarters, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Akihiro Nakamoto
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Hiroshima Prefectural Police Headquarters, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takeshi Saito
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Japan
| | - Masataka Nagao
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553 Japan
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Neonatal withdrawal syndrome after chronic maternal consumption of 4-methylethcathinone. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 245:e33-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Revised: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW New psychoactive substances refer to emerging substances that have appeared on the market and are not under international control. NPS have been categorized in different main groups (e.g. synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, phenethylamines, piperazines, ketamine and phencyclidine-type substances, tryptamines). This article reviews the recent literature regarding emerging trends of NPS in Europe. RECENT FINDINGS According to the last report of the European Union Early warning system (EWS), 73 NPS were officially identified for the first time. The more frequent NPS self-reported or detected are synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones. A combination of different NPS and also mixed with other drugs, mainly cannabis and ecstasy, is usual among experienced drug users. Acute NPS toxicity includes significant psychoactive and sympathomimetic effects. SUMMARY This article summarizes new European epidemiological and clinical data published between January and December 2013 on NPS. In the last few years, there has been a rapid increase in the number of NPS launched on the European drugs market. The presence of some of these new substances has been detected through surveys/questionnaires, studies in drug samples and biological fluids, and case reports and NPS-induced fatalities.
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Fornal E. Study of collision-induced dissociation of electrospray-generated protonated cathinones. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:705-15. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Fornal
- Chemistry Department; The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin; al. Krasnicka 102 20-718 Lublin Poland
- Laboratory of Separation and Spectroscopic Method Applications, Center for Interdisciplinary Research; The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin; al. Krasnicka 102 20-718 Lublin Poland
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