Heterogeneity in Maltreated and Non-maltreated Preschool Children's Inhibitory Control: The Interplay Between Parenting Quality and Child Temperament

Early childhood trauma exposure and neurocognitive and emotional processes: Associations in young children in a partial hospital program

Early childhood trauma has been linked to neurocognitive and emotional processing deficits in older children, yet much less is known about these associations in young children. Early childhood is an important developmental period in which to examine relations between trauma and executive functioning/emotion reactivity, given that these capacities are rapidly developing and are potential transdiagnostic factors implicated in the development of psychopathology. This cross-sectional study examined associations between cumulative trauma, interpersonal trauma, and components of executive functioning, episodic memory, and emotion reactivity, conceptualized using the RDoC framework and assessed with observational and performance-based measures, in a sample of 90 children (ages 4-7) admitted to a partial hospital program. Children who had experienced two or more categories of trauma had lower scores in episodic memory, global cognition, and inhibitory control as measured in a relational (but not computerized) task, when compared to children with less or no trauma. Interpersonal trauma was similarly associated with global cognition and relational inhibitory control. Family contextual factors did not moderate associations. Findings support examining inhibitory control in both relationally significant and decontextualized paradigms in early childhood, and underscore the importance of investigating multiple neurocognitive and emotional processes simultaneously to identify potential targets for early intervention.

Pre-COVID respiratory sinus arrhythmia moderates associations between COVID-19 stress and child externalizing behaviors: Testing neurobiological stress theories

Exposure to stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic contributes to psychopathology risk, yet not all children are negatively impacted. The current study examined a parasympathetic biomarker of stress sensitivity, respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), as a moderator of the effects of exposure to pandemic stress on child internalizing and externalizing behaviors in a sample of children experiencing economic marginalization. Three to five years pre-pandemic, when children were preschool-aged, RSA during baseline and a challenging parent-child interaction were collected. Mid-pandemic, between November 2020 and March 2021, children's exposure to pandemic stress and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were collected. Results demonstrated that children who, pre-pandemic, demonstrated blunted parasympathetic reactivity (i.e., no change in RSA relative to baseline) during the dyadic challenge exhibited elevated risk for externalizing behaviors mid-pandemic. Further, this risk was greatest for children exposed to high and moderate levels of pandemic stress. Consistent with diathesis stress and polyvagal frameworks, these conditional effects suggest that blunted parasympathetic reactivity in response to stress in early childhood may escalate the development of externalizing behaviors following stress exposure at school age.

Foster children avoidance-related interactive behaviors with caregivers

BACKGROUND

A lot of the research concerning foster children - often children who have suffered maltreatment in the family home - has focused on internalized and externalized symptoms. Few studies, however, have looked at the interactions between such children and caregivers.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to explore the Emotion Regulation Strategies (ERS) of children in foster care and to highlight those most commonly employed in family or placement contexts. The parents' and foster carers' ERS are also analyzed in order to understand the co-regulatory processes at work.

METHOD

An in-depth analysis of observation sequences was performed. Three data collection times, spaced across a period of 6 months (t1, t2 and t3), were included in the observation protocol. Each observation, recorded using a video camera, comprised 45 min of free time and 15 min of structured tasks. Transcription and coding of ERS were performed for each sequence using a microanalytical method. Both children's and adults' ERS were coded.

RESULTS

Children tended to be readily distracted when interacting with adults, and more particularly so with their parents. While they tended to display relatively normative processes with a foster carer, they turned to pathological avoidance mechanisms with their parents such as physical venting or self-stimulation. Interactions during structured tasks showed a significant reduction in distraction processes.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the prevalence of distraction behavior in foster children during their interactions with caregivers, and offers an insight into how structured interactions provide a framework that mitigates children's avoidance behaviors and so enhances adult-child collaboration.

Psychological maltreatment and aggression in preadolescence: Roles of temperamental effortful control and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies

BACKGROUND

Aggression is a type of externalization problem, which is common in preadolescence. The cause of preadolescents' aggression can be traced to their adverse family experiences, such as childhood psychological maltreatment. Therefore, exploring the cause and mechanism underlying aggressive behavior in preadolescents who have experienced psychological maltreatment is critical to preadolescents' healthy development.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to explore the mediating effects of effortful control and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between psychological maltreatment and aggressive behavior among preadolescents.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

A total sample of 940 preadolescents (50.53 % males and 49.47 % females, M_age = 9.75 years, SD = 1.17) were selected from two primary schools in Liaoning province, China. All preadolescents were in grades 3-5.

METHODS

The participants completed questionnaires regarding psychological maltreatment, effortful control, cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and aggression.

RESULTS

The results revealed that: (a) psychological maltreatment was positively associated with aggressive behavior; and (b) effortful control and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation mediated the link between psychological maltreatment and aggression in a sequential pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides further understanding of the relations between psychological maltreatment and aggression, and it also provides prevention and intervention suggestions concerning how to reduce the effect of psychological maltreatment on aggressive behavior among preadolescents.

Assessment of Preschool-age Executive Functions: A Systematic Review

Executive functions (EF) are higher-order cognitive processes present in the prefrontal cortex, and are fundamental in planning, executing, and monitoring goal-oriented behaviors. Evaluating EF in early stages of child development is essential for identifying any cognitive alterations in young children, given that it allows for early intervention and minimizes future complications. Additionally, it contributes to a better understanding of this construct in this age bracket, as well as its operational model. Study of EF has recently been the focus of multiple researcher; however, there is still a serious lack of instruments and measurements validated towards children's age bracket. This systematic review's main goal is to evaluate instruments and/or tasks that serve to evaluate and analyze EF and/or their components between the ages of 36 and 72 months. Forty-nine studies were analyzed, containing multiple tasks and tools oriented towards EF and their constituent components. Results indicate the existence of various tasks that grade the different components independently from one another; nevertheless, they also confirm the lack of any global measurement instrument or method. Therefore, this systematic review presents itself as an important contribution in the study of EF, not only stressing the importance of further investing into constructing and validating new and better tools for evaluating the construct, but also the study of operating models of executive functioning, especially in an age bracket where comprehending it is notoriously difficult.

Examination of the associations between young children's trauma exposure, trauma-symptomatology, and executive function

The present study used a bioecological framework to examine associations between trauma exposure, trauma-related symptomatology, and executive function (EF) in an urban sample of 88 predominantly ethnic-minority, low-income preschoolers (age 2-5) exposed to interpersonal trauma. Contrary to hypotheses based on past literature documenting associations between trauma exposure and EF deficits in childhood, in regressions adjusting for child gender, family income, and caregiver education, neither trauma exposure or trauma-related symptoms (post-traumatic stress symptoms, internalizing behaviors, or externalizing behaviors) were significantly associated with children's EF performance. Associations between child trauma exposure, symptomatology, and executive function were not moderated by parental PTSD symptomatology; and EF was not differentially predicted by type of trauma. Results suggest that, within an ethnically-diverse sample of preschool-aged children exposed to multiple traumas, associations between trauma exposure, symptomatology, and EF may be particularly nuanced. Keywords: child trauma, posttraumatic stress, executive function, preschool-age children, child mental health.

Dyadic synchrony and repair processes are related to preschool children's risk exposure and self-control

We examined associations between preschool children's cumulative risk exposure, dyadic interaction patterns, and self-control abilities in 238 mother-child dyads. Positive interactive synchrony, relationship ruptures, and latency to repair were micro-coded during a 3-5 minute joint challenge task. Children's self-control was assessed via two laboratory tasks and by parent report. Structural equation modeling and mediation analyses were utilized to examine the direct and indirect effects of cumulative risk on children's observed and parent-reported self-control abilities. Parent-child interactive processes of dyadic synchrony and latency to repair ruptures in synchrony were examined as mediators. Dyadic synchrony and latency to repair ruptures were found to mediate associations between cumulative risk exposure and children's behavioral and parent-reported self-control. Children exposed to more cumulative risk engaged in less dyadic synchrony and experienced longer latencies to repair ruptures with their caregiver, which in turn was associated with lower child self-control. Though cross-sectional, findings suggest dyadic synchrony and repair processes may represent viable mechanistic pathways linking cumulative risk exposure and deficits in child self-control. However, independent replications using longitudinal and experimental intervention designs are needed to determine causal pathways and inform new approaches for targeting the effects of early risk exposure through a focus on two-generational interventions.

Levers and barriers to success in the use of translational neuroscience for the prevention and treatment of mental health and promotion of well-being across the lifespan

Neuroscientific tools and approaches such as neuroimaging, measures of neuroendocrine and psychoneuroimmune activity, and peripheral physiology are increasingly used in clinical science and health psychology research. We define translational neuroscience (TN) as a systematic, theory-driven approach that aims to develop and leverage basic and clinical neuroscientific knowledge to aid the development and optimization of clinical and public health interventions. There is considerable potential across basic and clinical science fields for this approach to provide insights into mental and physical health pathology that had previously been inaccessible. For example, TN might hold the potential to enhance diagnostic specificity, better recognize increased vulnerability in at-risk populations, and augment intervention efficacy. Despite this potential, there has been limited consideration of the advantages and limitations of such an approach. In this article, we articulate extant challenges in defining TN and propose a unifying conceptualization. We illustrate how TN can inform the application of neuroscientific tools to realistically guide clinical research and inform intervention design. We outline specific leverage points of the TN approach and barriers to progress. Ten principles of TN are presented to guide and shape the emerging field. We close by articulating ongoing issues facing TN research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Study Protocol: The Coaching Alternative Parenting Strategies (CAPS) Study of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy in Child Welfare Families

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment (CM) constitutes a serious public health problem in the United States with parents implicated in a majority of physical abuse and neglect cases. Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) is an intensive intervention for CM families that uses innovative "bug-in-ear" coaching to improve parenting and child outcomes, and reduce CM recidivism; however, the mechanisms underlying its effects are little understood. The Coaching Alternative Parenting Strategies (CAPS) study aims to clarify the behavioral, neural, and physiological mechanisms of action in PCIT that support positive changes in parenting, improve parent and child self-regulation and social perceptions, and reduce CM in child welfare-involved families.

METHODS

The CAPS study includes 204 child welfare-involved parent-child dyads recruited from Oregon Department of Human Services to participate in a randomized controlled trial of PCIT versus a services-as-usual control condition (clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02684903). Children ages 3-8 years at study entry and their parents complete a pre-treatment assessment prior to randomization and a post-treatment assessment 9-12 months post study entry. Dyads randomized to PCIT complete an additional, abbreviated assessment at mid-treatment. Each assessment includes individual and joint measures of parents' and children's cardiac physiology at rest, during experimental tasks, and in recovery; observational coding of parent-child interactions; and individual electroencephalogram (EEG) sessions including attentional and cognitive control tasks. In addition, parents and children complete an emotion regulation task and parents report on their own and their child's adverse childhood experiences and socio-cognitive processes, while children complete a cognitive screen and a behavioral measure of inhibitory control. Parents and children also provide anthropometric measures of allostatic load and 4-5 whole blood spots to assess inflammation and immune markers. CM recidivism is assessed for all study families at 6-month follow-up. Post-treatment and follow-up assessments are currently underway.

DISCUSSION

Knowledge gained from this study will clarify PCIT effects on neurobehavioral target mechanisms of change in predicting CM risk reduction, positive, responsive parenting, and children's outcomes. This knowledge can help to guide efforts to tailor and adapt PCIT to vary in dosage and cost on the basis of individual differences in CM-risk factors.

Longitudinal associations between physically abusive parents' emotional expressiveness and children's self-regulation

The present study took a developmental psychopathology approach to examine the longitudinal association between parents' emotional expressiveness and children's self-regulation. Data collection spanned from 2004 to 2008. Ninety-two physically abusive parents completed yearly assessments of their emotional expressiveness, as well as their children's self-regulation abilities. Observational and behavioral measures were also obtained yearly to capture both parents' emotional expressiveness and children's self-regulation. Specifically, parents participated in a parent-child interaction task, which provided insight into their levels of flat affect. A puzzle box task was completed by each child to assess self-regulation. Results indicated, first, that greater parental expression of negative emotions predicted poorer self-regulation in children, both concurrently and across time. Second, parental expressions of positive emotions and parents' flat affect were unrelated to children's self-regulation. Findings inform our understanding of parental socialization of self-regulation and provide insight into the roles of distinct components of emotional expressiveness. Moreover, findings have crucial implications for understanding emotional expressiveness in high-risk samples and increase our understanding of within-group functioning among maltreating families that may serve as a means to direct intervention efforts.

Intergenerational associations in executive function between mothers and children in the context of risk

Executive functioning (EF) is critical for school readiness and other important life skills. Previous investigations have often neglected the important influence of parental EF skills in shaping their own children's EF. This study attempted to replicate recent empirical work that has shown that maternal EF is positively related to child EF. An ecological theoretical framework was used to examine the maternal EF-child EF link in family environments characterized by significant risk and socioeconomic adversity. Data from 38 mother-child dyads revealed that larger maternal working memory capacity was associated with greater child accuracy and slower reaction times on a child-friendly Go/No-Go task of response inhibition but not on an Emotional Go/No-Go task. This finding suggests that in contexts of risk and adversity, slower reaction times, instead of reflecting weaker EF skills, might reflect an adaptive skill-that is, exercising appropriate caution and careful responding on a challenging task. Results provide additional evidence of an intergenerational link between maternal EF and child EF and yield new insights into the nature of EF in adverse environments.

Addressing the Needs of Preschool Children in the Context of Disasters and Terrorism: Clinical Pictures and Moderating Factors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This paper surveys the existent theoretical and research literature regarding the needs of preschool children in the context of disasters and terrorism with the aim of understanding (a) the consequences of such events for young children and (b) the main moderating variables influencing the event-consequence association to learn how to enhance their resilience.

RECENT FINDINGS

Consequences include a variety of emotional, behavioral, and biological outcomes. Implications for refugee children are discussed. Main moderating variables were mother's sensitivity and mother's PTSD symptoms. Exposure to disasters and terrorism may have severe effects on the mental health and development among preschool children. Future research should explore the implications of different levels of exposure and the effects of moderating psychosocial and biological variables, including the parent-child triad, on the event-consequence relationship.

Child maltreatment and emotion socialization: Associations with executive function in the preschool years

This study examined executive function (EF) among preschoolers exposed to maltreatment, and tested whether caregiver practices related to emotion socialization (e.g., reactions to children's emotions; discussion of emotion) moderate the relationship between maltreatment and EF in this period. Participants were (n=107) children aged 4-5 years (M=4.75; SD=0.57; 39% female), with various levels of exposure to maltreatment. Using the Maltreatment Classification System, substantiated reports of maltreatment were coded to produce an index of the multiplicity of abuse subtypes to which children had been exposed. EF was indexed using a composite of scores on three performance-based tests (Happy-Sad Stroop Task; Tapping Test; Dimensional Change Card Sort). Caregivers reported on their use of emotion related socialization behaviors (ERSBs) with the Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale. Exposure to maltreatment and ERSBs were both found to account for unique variance in EF, independent of developmental-ecological factors including children's receptive language and maternal depression. Significant interactions between maltreatment and ERSBs were also found to suggest that nonsupportive ERSBs (e.g., punitive reactions to negative child emotion) may amplify the risk for poor EF associated with maltreatment, whereas supportive ERPBs (e.g., expressive encouragement) protect against it.

Measuring the development of inhibitory control: The challenge of heterotypic continuity

Inhibitory control is thought to demonstrate heterotypic continuity, in other words, continuity in its purpose or function but changes in its behavioral manifestation over time. This creates major methodological challenges for studying the development of inhibitory control in childhood including construct validity, developmental appropriateness and sensitivity of measures, and longitudinal factorial invariance. We meta-analyzed 198 studies using measures of inhibitory control, a key aspect of self-regulation, to estimate age ranges of usefulness for each measure. The inhibitory control measures showed limited age ranges of usefulness owing to ceiling/floor effects. Tasks were useful, on average, for a developmental span of less than 3 years. This suggests that measuring inhibitory control over longer spans of development may require use of different measures at different time points, seeking to measure heterotypic continuity. We suggest ways to study the development of inhibitory control, with overlapping measurement in a structural equation modeling framework and tests of longitudinal factorial or measurement invariance. However, as valuable as this would be for the area, we also point out that establishing longitudinal factorial invariance is neither sufficient nor necessary for examining developmental change. Any study of developmental change should be guided by theory and construct validity, aiming toward a better empirical and theoretical approach to the selection and combination of measures.