Mouse mammary-tumor virus activates Fgf-3/Int-2 less frequently in tumors from virgin than from parous mice

Mouse mammary tumor virus derived from wild mice does not target Notch-4 protooncogene for the development of mammary tumors in inbred mice

The colony of wild mice, named Jyg, has been shown to express an exogenous mouse mammary tumor virus (Jyg-MMTV). This virus induces mammary tumors in its natural host at a high incidence ( approximately 80%) resulting from insertion mutations in Notch-4 (43%), Wnt-1 (26%), and Fgf-3 (13%). Since the activation of Notch-4 is not common in mammary tumors of standard laboratory strains of mice infected with various MMTV strains, we examined the consequences of Jyg-MMTV infection in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. The results show that Jyg-MMTV induces mammary tumors in both mouse strains, but the incidence of mammary tumors in BALB/c mice is greater than in C57BL/6 mice. Surprisingly, however, none of the 75 mammary tumors, analyzed both by Southern and Northern hybridizations, showed insertion mutations in or expression of Notch-4. In contrast, both Wnt-1 and Fgf-3 were found to be involved in these tumors. Our findings may suggest, among other possibilities, the existence of a structural difference(s) between laboratory and wild mice at the Notch-4 locus that regulates the integration of Jyg-MMTV proviral DNA.

Mouse mammary tumor virus integration site selection in human and mouse genomes

Based on integration site preferences, retroviruses can be placed into three groups. Viruses that comprise the first group, murine leukemia virus and foamy virus, integrate preferentially near transcription start sites. The second group, notably human immunodeficiency virus and simian immunodeficiency virus, preferentially targets transcription units. Avian sarcoma-leukosis virus (ASLV) and human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV), forming the third group, show little preference for any genomic feature. We have previously shown that some human cells sustain mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) infection; therefore, we infected a susceptible human breast cell line, Hs578T, and, without introducing a species-specific bias, compared the MMTV integration profile to those of other retroviruses. Additionally, we infected a mouse cell line, NMuMG, and thus we could compare MMTV integration site selection in human and mouse cells. In total, we examined 468 unique MMTV integration sites. Irrespective of whether human or mouse cells were infected, no integration bias favoring transcription start sites was detected, a profile that is reminiscent of that of ASLV and HTLV. However, in contrast to ASLV and HTLV, not even a modest tendency in favor of integration within genes was observed. Similarly, repetitive sequences and genes that are frequently tagged by MMTV in mammary tumors were not preferentially targeted in cell culture either in mouse or in human cells; hence, we conclude that MMTV displays the most random dispersion of integration sites among retroviruses determined so far.

Selection of early-occurring mutations dictates hormone-independent progression in mouse mammary tumor lines

Mice harboring three mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) variants develop pregnancy-dependent (PD) tumors that progress to pregnancy-independent (PI) behavior through successive passages. Herein, we identified 10 predominant insertions in PI transplants from 8 independent tumor lines. These mutations were also detected in small cell populations in the early PD passages. In addition, we identified a new viral insertion upstream of the gene Rspo3, which is overexpressed in three of the eight independent tumor lines and codes for a protein very similar to the recently described protein encoded by Int7. This study suggests that during progression towards hormone independence, clonal expansion of cells with specific mutations might be more relevant than the occurrence of new MMTV insertions.

Progression of pregnancy-dependent mouse mammary tumors after long dormancy periods. Involvement of Wnt pathway activation

Mouse mammary tumor virus (LA) induces pregnancy-dependent mammary tumors that progress toward autonomy. Here we show that in virgin females, pregnancy-dependent tumor transplants are able to remain dormant for up to 300 days. During that period, these tumors synthesize DNA, express high levels of estrogen and progesterone receptors (ER+PR+) and are able to resume growth after hormone stimulation. Surprisingly, in a subsequent transplant generation, all these tumors are fully able to grow in virgin females, they express low levels of ER and PR (ER-PR-) and have a monoclonal origin; i.e., show all of the features we have described previously in pregnancy-independent tumors. Histologically, mouse mammary tumor virus (LA)-induced tumors are morphologically similar to genetically engineered mouse (GEM) mammary tumors that overexpress genes belonging to the Wnt pathway. Interestingly, in the virus-induced neoplasias, pregnancy-independent passages arising after a dormant phase usually display a lower level of glandular differentiation together with epithelial cell trans-differentiation, a specific feature associated to Wnt pathway activation. In addition, dormancy can lead to the specific selection of Int2/Fgf3 mutated and overexpressing cells. Therefore, our results indicate that during hormone-dependent tumor dormancy, relevant changes in cell population occur, allowing rapid progression after changes in the animal internal milieu.

Number of pregnancies and ovariectomy modify mammary carcinoma development in transgenic HER-2/neu female mice

We studied effect of pregnancy and ovariectomy on the development of mammary tumors in homozygous female HER-2/neutransgenic mice. The mean life span of uniparous mice was decreased by 16% in comparison to the control (P<0.05) and of mice which have two pregnancies decreased by 11% (P<0.05). Ovariectomy at the age of 2 months was followed by 32.7% increase in mean life span of mice. The incidence or multiplicity of mammary adenocarcinomas did not change in uniparous mice, whereas the size of the tumors and metastatic potential were decreased as compared to the virgins. When mice have two full-time pregnancies, there was an increase in multiplicity of mammary carcinomas and significant (2.1-fold) decrease in the survival time of tumor-bearing mice. Ovariectomy significantly decreased the total incidence of mammary carcinomas, the number of tumors per tumor-bearing animal, and inhibited metastasizing into lungs. Our results indicate that pregnancy accelerated the development of mammary adenocarcinomas in transgenic HER-2/neu mice whereas ovariectomy inhibits their development.

Inducible expression of FGF-3 in mouse mammary gland

Fibroblast growth factor-3 (FGF-3) is a crucial developmental regulator. Aberrant activation of this gene by mouse mammary tumor virus insertion results in pregnancy-responsive mammary tumorigenesis. To characterize better FGF-3 function in postnatal mammary gland development and cancer initiation/progression, we used a mifepristone (RU486)-inducible regulatory system to express conditionally FGF-3 in the mammary epithelium of transgenic mice. Ectopic overexpression of FGF-3 in pubescent mammary glands elicited severe perturbations in early mammary gland development leading to mammary hyperplasia. Ductal elongation was retarded, multiple cysts persisted in the virgin ducts, and ductal epithelium was expanded and multilayered. The altered ductal architecture and the persistence of hyperplastic multilayered epithelium reflect a defect in growth regulation, which resulted from an imbalance between mitogenic and apoptotic signals. By altering the duration of RU486 treatment, we showed that the persistence of mitogenic signal elicited by FGF-3 is crucial for the initiation, progression, and maintenance of the hyperplastic characteristic of the mammary epithelium. The manifestations elicited by FGF-3 could be reversed by RU486 withdrawal. In addition, synergism between the stimulus from estrogen and FGF-3 mitogenic pathways was evident and likely contributes to the pregnancy-dependent tumorigenesis of FGF-3. Taken together, the mifepristone-inducible regulatory system provides a powerful means for understanding the diverse roles of FGF-3 and its interactions with hormones in mammary gland tumorigenesis.

Progression in MCF-7 breast cancer cell tumorigenicity: compared effect of FGF-3 and FGF-4

The transforming properties of fibroblast growth factor 3 (FGF-3) were investigated in MCF7 breast cancer cells and compared to those of FGF-4, a known oncogenic product. The short form of fgf-3 and the fgf-4 sequences were each introduced with retroviral vectors and the proteins were only detected in the cytoplasm of the infected cells, as expected. In vitro, cells producing FGF-3 (MCF7.fgf-3) and FGF-4 (MCF7.fgf-4) displayed an amount of estrogen receptors decreased to around 45% of the control value. However, MCF7.fgf-3 cell proliferation remained responsive to estradiol supply. The sensitivity of the MCF7.fgf-4 cells, if existant, was masked by the important mitogenic action exerted by FGF-4. In vivo, the MCF7.fgf-3 and MCF7.fgf-4 cells gave rise to tumors under conditions in which the control cells were not tumorigenic. Supplementing the mice with estrogen had the paradoxical effect of totally suppressing the start of the FGF-3 as well as the FGF-4 tumors. Tumorigenicity in the presence of matrigel was similar for MCF7.fgf-3 and control cells and was increased by estrogen supplementation. Once started, the MCF7.fgf-4 tumors grew with a characteristic high rate. Remarkably, FGF-4 but not FGF-3, stimulated the secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF165) without altering the steady-state level of its mRNA, suggesting a possible regulation of VEGF synthesis at the translational level in MCF7 cells. The increased VEGF secretion is probably involved in the more aggressive phenotype of the MCF7.fgf-4 cells while a decreased dependence upon micro-environmental factors might be part of the increased tumorigenic potential of the MCF7.fgf-3 cells.

Identification of a MMTV insertion mutation within the coding region of the Fgf-3 protooncogene

The Fgf-3 protooncogene (previously called int-2) is a target of proviral insertion mutations in mammary tumors induced by the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV). These insertion mutations result in the transcriptional activation of Fgf-3, which is not normally expressed in the adult mammary gland. Previous mapping studies of numerous Fgf-3 insertion mutations have failed to reveal any provirus integrations within the gene coding region. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that oncogenesis occurs in this system as a consequence of up-regulation of Fgf-3 transcription, rather than from alterations of the gene product. During an analysis of a new cohort of tumors from the WXG-2 mouse strain, a breast tumor was identified which had a MMTV provirus integrated 24 bp upstream of the Fgf-3 stop codon. This insertion mutation generated a fusion transcript which was readily detectable in tumor RNA by RT-PCR. The predicted protein product of this fusion transcript is missing 8 aa of native sequence and contains an additional 8 aa of cryptic MMTV-encoded sequence. These data document the first exception to the generalization that the Fgf-3 coding region is not disrupted by MMTV insertion mutation.

Fibroblast growth factor 3 is tumorigenic for mouse mammary cells orthotopically implanted in nude mice

Fibroblast growth factor-3 (Fgf-3) is involved in mouse mammary tumorigenesis since the Fgf-3 gene is a main target for mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) insertional activation. Its action has been correlated with the appearance of pregnancy-dependent tumors. We describe here the effects on normal mouse mammary EF43 cells of the short Fgf-3 protein form which enters the secretory pathway. The genes, Fgf-3 AUG or Fgf-4 for comparison, were introduced in the mammary cells by means of retroviral vectors. Fgf-3 expression did not modify EF43 cell morphology, had no effect on growth in soft agar nor on the inhibitory action exerted on cell growth by TGF-beta 1; however, it allowed the cells to grow under low serum conditions in the absence of insulin and EGF. The Fgf-3-expressing cells were not tumorigenic in nude mice when injected s.c., but tumors developed when the cells were implanted in the mammary gland. The tumors appeared after some latency; they had a slow growth phase followed by a phase of increased growth rate. An identical tumoral growth pattern was observed in ovariectomized nude mice. These results show that the secreted Fgf-3 form can initiate tumorigenesis and that the induced tumors are hormone-independent. The mammary-gland environment, however, is required for the EF43 cells to grow and differentiate. During that process, which resembles natural cell growth during mammary-gland development at pregnancy, the cells could pass through a stage which is specifically sensitive to Fgf-3.

Insertional mutagenesis identifies a member of the Wnt gene family as a candidate oncogene in the mammary epithelium of int-2/Fgf-3 transgenic mice

Transgenic mice harboring the int-2/Fgf-3 protooncogene under transcriptional control of the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) promoter/enhancer exhibit a dramatic, benign hyperplasia of the mammary gland. In one int-2 transgenic line (TG.NX), this growth disturbance is evoked by pregnancy and regresses after parturition. Regression of hyperplastic mammary epithelium is less complete after successive pregnancies, and, within 10 months, most TG.NX mice stochastically develop mammary carcinomas that are transplantable in virgin, syngeneic mice. To identify genes that cooperate with int-2 in cell transformation, we infected TG.NX transgenic mice with MMTV. In a cohort of 14 animals, most mammary tumors represented clonal or oligoclonal outgrowths harboring one to five proviral MMTV integrants. Eight of 35 (23%) MMTV+ tumors exhibited proviral insertion at the Wnt-1 locus. No provirus was detected at the int-2, int-3, or Wnt-3 loci. By Southern analysis, two tumors had proviral insertions at the same genomic location, which was mapped to chromosome 15. Cloning of this int locus identified an additional member of the Wnt gene family. The predicted 389-amino acid protein is most closely related to zebrafish Wnt-10a (58% amino acid identity over 362 residues) and, based on homology analysis, was designated Wnt-10b. This newly discovered Wnt family member was expressed in the embryo and mammary gland of virgin but not pregnant mice and represents a candidate collaborating oncogene of int-2/Fgf-3 in the mammary epithelium.