Snake venom toxins: Potential anticancer therapeutics

Comparative study on drug encapsulation and release kinetics in extracellular vesicles loaded with snake venom L - amino acid oxidase

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate the potential of plasma-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) as drug delivery carriers by employing two drug-loading techniques: coincubation and freeze-thaw cycles.

METHODS

EVs isolated via the polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation method were characterized via nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The size of the particles was 200.1 ± 66.6 nm. The isolated vesicles were loaded with 1000 µg/ml snake venom L amino acid oxidase (SVLAAO) via the coincubation method and subjected to freeze-thaw cycles to prepare a novel formulation. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) of the loaded EVs was analysed at 30 and 60 min, and in vitro drug release profiles were evaluated for both methods and kinetic model for the same was determined.

RESULTS

The coincubation method achieved an EE of 58.08 ± 0.060% after 60 min, which was greater than that of the freeze-thaw method (55.80 ± 0.060%). Drug release studies demonstrated that 93% of the drug was released in 8.5 h by the coincubation method, whereas the freeze-thaw method resulted in faster release (99% in 6.5 h) due to membrane disruption. The best fit value (R2) was highest for zero order kinetics model.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the coincubation method preserves EV membrane integrity, enabling sustained drug release, making it a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery applications. This study highlights plasma-derived EVs as innovative carriers for therapeutic delivery.

A review on animal venom-based matrix metalloproteinase modulators and their therapeutic implications

Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) belong to a family of proteolytic enzymes that degrade extracellular matrix components, such as collagen, elastin, laminin, and fibronectin. They also play a part in tissue remodeling by cleaving and rejoining the tissue proteins. Cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, and chronic inflammatory conditions are just some of the diseases that can start or get worse when different MMPs are not working properly. Venomous Animals such as honeybees, toads, snakes, spiders, scorpions, jellyfish, and sea anemones contain venom-secreting glands, which help them defend against predators and immobilize their prey. The molecules that come from animal venom are a complicated mix of bioactive molecules, such as peptides, enzymes, proteins, and small organic compounds that do a number of biological things. Venom-derived molecules have been found to modulate MMP. These venoms and their components target specific signaling pathways, modifying MMP expression levels to either induce inflammation or exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. In this review, we study and explore different MMPs, such as MMP1, MMP2, MMP3, MMP7, MMP8, and MMP9, and their roles in the progression of certain diseases. We also look at different types of molecules derived from marine and land animal venom that are used as MMP modulators. We look at how they work by targeting specific signaling pathways to change MMPs and how they might be used as a medicine to stop diseases by decreasing MMPs.

Macrovipera lebetinus obtusa Venom and Its Fractions Affect Human Dermal Microvascular Endothelial and Fibrosarcoma Cells

The venom of Macrovipera lebetinus obtusa (MLO) has remarkable properties that are hard to overlook. This venom's described 38 protein components work synergistically, forming complexes that greatly enhance their combined effectiveness. Previous studies have shown that both crude venom and one of its components, obtustatin, can reduce sarcoma tumors by 50% and 30%, respectively. Obtustatin, a member of the short disintegrin family, inhibits the angiogenic activity of α1β1 integrin, the adhesive receptor of collagen IV. However, the mechanisms of the greater efficacy of the crude venom compared to its isolated components remain unclear. To investigate this, we propose an experimental work to explore the activity of certain low-molecular-weight components of MLO venom. Our in vitro tests on fibrosarcoma (HT-1080) cells using six venom fractions revealed cytotoxic fractions, which, through mass spectrometry, were identified as containing protein classes such as dimeric and short disintegrins, acidic phospholipase A2, and serine proteinases. Notably, these fractions exhibited minimal toxicity to human dermal microvascular endothelial (HDEC) cells, suggesting their potential as a promising candidate for oncotherapy in the future.

Successful management of severe coagulopathy in a dog following Cerastes gasperettii (Arabian horned Viper) envenomation: First clinical case description in Israel

This report describes the first documented clinical case of a confirmed, naturally occurring Cerastes gasperettii (C. gasperettii; Arabian horned viper) envenomation, providing valuable insight into the limited literature on this important species. The case describes a five-year-old pointer dog from the Arave Valley, Israel. Clinical signs included progressive soft tissue swelling and lethargy. Laboratory findings revealed severe coagulopathy, mild renal impairment, and evidence of microangiopathic hemolysis. Despite the unavailability of species-specific antivenom, treatment management with canine fresh frozen plasma, crystalloid therapy, and supportive care, resulted in full recovery within 36 hours. This case contributes significantly to understanding the clinical manifestations, therapeutic strategies, and potential pathophysiological mechanisms of C. gasperettii envenomation.

Enhancing the Efficacy of Melanoma Treatment: The In Vitro Chemosensitising Impact of Vipera ammodytes Venom on Human Melanoma Cell Lines

Research on viper venom has expanded into diverse medical applications, including cancer treatment. This study investigates the potential of Vipera ammodytes venom in oncology, evaluating its cytotoxicity and chemosensitising effects on malignant melanoma cells. Proteomic analysis identified 125 proteins in the venom, with Phospholipases A2, C-type lectins, and metalloproteinases among the most abundant components. These proteins are associated with cytotoxic, anti-proliferative, and tumor-inhibiting properties. Three melanoma cell lines (M001, Me501, and A375) were used to assess venom cytotoxicity. The IC50 values demonstrated consistent venom sensitivity across cell lines (approximately 1.1 µg/mL). Combined treatment with venom and cisplatin significantly increased the cytotoxicity compared to single-agent treatments. Notably, venom enhanced the sensitivity of cisplatin in resistant cell lines (M001 and Me501), increasing cell mortality by up to 40%. The A375 cell line, inherently more sensitive to cisplatin, exhibited additional cytotoxic effects only at higher venom doses. The morphological changes observed under microscopy confirmed venom-induced cellular changes, further supporting its potential as an anti-cancer agent. The selective targeting of melanoma cells by venom components, particularly in muscle-associated metastases, suggests a unique therapeutic niche. While cisplatin was chosen for this pilot study due to its established cytotoxicity, future research will explore venom combinations with contemporary treatments such as immunotherapy and targeted therapies. Although preliminary, these findings provide a foundation for integrating venom-based strategies into advanced melanoma protocols, aiming to improve outcomes in resistant or metastatic cases.

Innovations in Snake Venom-Derived Therapeutics: A Systematic Review of Global Patents and Their Pharmacological Applications

Active compounds from natural sources, particularly snake venoms, are crucial for pharmaceutical development despite challenges in drug discovery. Snake venoms, historically used for medicinal purposes, contain bioactive peptides and enzymes that show therapeutic potential for conditions such as arthritis, asthma, cancer, chronic pain, infections and cardiovascular diseases. The objective of this study was to examine pharmacological and biomedical innovations by identifying the key research trends, the most studied snake species, and their therapeutic applications. A systematic review of patents related to snake venoms was conducted using the European Patent Office database, Espacenet, covering 2014 to mid-2024. The search employed the keyword "venom," applying IPC classification A61K38/00, resulting in 31 patents after screening. A PubMed survey on "snake venom derivatives innovations" was conducted to compare the scientific literature volume with the identified patents. This review highlights the therapeutic potential of snake venom-derived products for coagulation disorders, cancer, inflammation, and pain management. Despite challenges in pharmacokinetics and venom variability, advancements in biotechnology offer promise for personalized therapies. The future of snake venom-based treatments appears promising for addressing complex medical conditions.

Metabolomics and proteomics: synergistic tools for understanding snake venom inhibition

Snake envenomation presents a significant global health challenge, especially in rural areas of tropical and subtropical regions. Traditional antivenom therapies face limitations related to efficacy, availability, and specificity, prompting a need for novel approaches. Recent advancements in omics technologies, particularly metabolomics and proteomics, have enhanced our understanding of snake venom composition, toxicity, and potential therapeutic strategies. Metabolomics allows for the study of metabolic changes induced by venom, providing insights into disrupted pathways and possible inhibitors. Proteomics facilitates the identification and characterization of venom proteins, unveiling their interactions with therapeutic agents. Integrative databases such as the Snake Venom Database (SVDB) and STAB Profiles enhance this research by cataloging venom components and aiding in the analysis of venom-antivenom interactions. The combined application of metabolomics and proteomics has led to the identification of crucial metabolic pathways and protein targets essential for effective venom inhibition. This review explores current advances in these fields, emphasizing the role of omics in identifying novel inhibitors and developing next-generation antivenoms. The integrated approach of metabolomics and proteomics offers a comprehensive understanding of snake venom biology, paving the way for more effective and tailored therapeutic solutions for envenomation.

The application of snake venom in anticancer drug discovery: an overview of the latest developments

INTRODUCTION

Snake venom is a rich source of toxins with great potential for therapeutic applications. In addition to its efficacy in treating hypertension, acute coronary syndrome, and other heart conditions, research has shown that this potent enzymatic cocktail is capable of selectively targeting and destroying cancer cells in many cases while sparing healthy cells.

AREAS COVERED

The authors begin by acknowledging the emerging trends in snake-derived targeted therapies in battling cancer. An extensive literature review examining the effects of various snake venom toxins on cancer cell lines, highlighting the specific cancer hallmarks each toxin targets is presented. Furthermore, the authors emphasize the emerging potential of artificial intelligence in accelerating snake venom-based drug discovery for cancer treatment, showcasing several innovative software applications in this field.

EXPERT OPINION

Research on snake venom toxins indicates promising potential for cancer treatment as many of the discussed toxins can specifically target cancer cells. Nevertheless, variations in the composition of venoms, ethical issues, and delivery barriers limit their development into effective therapies. Thus, advances in biotechnology, molecular engineering, in silico methods are crucial for the refinement of venom-derived compounds, improving their specificity, and overcoming these challenges, ultimately enhancing their therapeutic potential in cancer therapy.

Ethnomedicinal breakthroughs in snake bite therapy: From folklore to forefront

Snakebite envenomation is a critical public health issue, especially in tropical regions like India, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. This review explores the potential of ethnomedicinal herbs as adjunct therapies to conventional antivenoms, addressing challenges such as the high cost, limited availability, and side effects of traditional antivenoms. The study emphasizes regional and species-specific variations in snake venom that complicate antivenom development and highlights the pharmacological potential of certain medicinal plants in mitigating venom effects. These plants offer an affordable, accessible alternative, though their efficacy can vary due to regional venom differences. Additionally, the review discusses the role of bioinformatics in advancing antivenom research, aiming to combine traditional knowledge with modern science to develop effective and accessible snakebite treatments in resource-limited settings.

Effect of Apis mellifera syriaca Bee Venom on Glioblastoma Cancer: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive and fatal primary brain tumor. The resistance of GBM to conventional treatments is attributed to factors such as the blood-brain barrier, tumor heterogeneity, and treatment-resistant stem cells. Current therapeutic efforts show limited survival benefits, emphasizing the urgent need for novel treatments. In this context, natural anti-cancer extracts and especially animal venoms have garnered attention for their potential therapeutic benefits. Bee venom in general and that of the Middle Eastern bee, Apis mellifera syriaca in particular, has been shown to have cytotoxic effects on various cancer cell types, but not glioblastoma. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential of A. mellifera syriaca venom as a selective anti-cancer agent for glioblastoma through in vitro and in vivo studies. Our results revealed a strong cytotoxic effect of A. mellifera syriaca venom on U87 glioblastoma cells, with an IC50 of 14.32 µg/mL using the MTT test and an IC50 of 7.49 µg/mL using the LDH test. Cells treated with the bee venom became permeable to propidium iodide without showing any signs of early apoptosis, suggesting compromised membrane integrity but not early apoptosis. In these cells, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) underwent proteolytic cleavage similar to that seen in necrosis. Subsequent in vivo investigations demonstrated a significant reduction in the number of U87 cells in mice following bee venom injection, accompanied by a significant increase in cells expressing caspase-3, suggesting the occurrence of cellular apoptosis. These findings highlight the potential of A. mellifera syriaca venom as a therapeutically useful tool in the search for new drug candidates against glioblastoma and give insights into the molecular mechanism through which the venom acts on cancer cells.

A comparison of the venom proteomes and potential therapeutics of 3 African naja subgenera

African cobras (Naja species) represent one of the most encountered medically important snakes in Africa. They are classified as African spitting (Afronaja subgenus) and non-spitting cobras (Uraeus and Boulengerina subgenera) with similar and different characteristics. Snake venom toxins including three-finger toxin (3FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) cause snakebite envenomation leading to morbidity and mortality. The profile of the proteome of African cobra venoms will help to develop safer and more effective antivenoms. The approval of Captopril by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, has led to intensified research towards possible use of venom toxins as therapeutics. In this review, we compare the venom proteome profile of 3 African Naja subgenera. In both Afronaja and Boulengerina subgenera, 3FTx (Afronaja-69.79%; Boulengerina-60.56%) followed by PLA2 (Afronaja-21.15%; Boulengerina-20.21%) dominated the venoms compared to the Uraeus subgenus dominated by 3FTx (84.55%) with little to no PLA2 abundance (0.8%). The venom of subgenus Uraeus was distinct from the other two subgenera by the almost total absence of PLA2, thus indicating little or no contribution of PLA2 in the envenomation caused by Uraeus compared to Afronaja and Boulengerina. Furthermore, we report studies on the experimental testing of African cobra venoms and toxins against diseases including anti-cancer properties.

Expression, Purification and Characterization of Recombinant Disintegrin from Gloydius Brevicaudus Venom in Escherichia Coli

Disintegrins, a family of snake venom protein, which are capable of modulating the activity of integrins that play a fundamental role in the regulation of many physiological and pathological processes. The main purpose of this study is to obtain the recombinant disintegrin (r-DI) and evaluate its biological activity. In this study, we explored a high-level expression prokaryotic system and purification strategy for r-DI. Then, r-DI was treated to assay effects on cell growth, migration, and invasion. The affinity for the interactions of r-DI with integrin was determined using Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analyses. The r-DI can be expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by one-step chromatography. The r-DI can inhibit B16F10 cells proliferation, migration, and invasion. Also, we found that r-DI could interact with the integrin αIIbβ3 (GPIIb/IIIa). The r-DI can be expressed, purified, characterized through functional assays, and can also maintain strong biological activities. Thus, this study showed potential therapeutic effects of r-DI for further functional and structural studies.

Bioactive Properties of Venoms Isolated from Whiptail Stingrays and the Search for Molecular Mechanisms and Targets

The venom-containing barb attached to their 'whip-like' tail provides stingrays a defensive mechanism for evading predators such as sharks. From human encounters, dermal stingray envenomation is characterized by intense pain often followed by tissue necrosis occurring over several days to weeks. The bioactive components in stingray venoms (SRVs) and their molecular targets and mechanisms that mediate these complex responses are not well understood. Given the utility of venom-derived proteins from other venomous species for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, we set out to characterize the bioactivity of SRV extracts from three local species that belong to the Dasyatoidea 'whiptail' superfamily. Multiple cell-based assays were used to quantify and compare the in vitro effects of these SRVs on different cell lines. All three SRVs demonstrated concentration-dependent growth-inhibitory effects on three different human cell lines tested. In contrast, a mouse fibrosarcoma cell line was markedly resistant to all three SRVs, indicating the molecular target(s) for mediating the SRV effects are not expressed on these cells. The multifunctional SRV responses were characterized by an acute disruption of cell adhesion leading to apoptosis. These findings aim to guide future investigations of individual SRV proteins and their molecular targets for potential use in biomedical applications.

Snake Venom: A Promising Source of Neurotoxins Targeting Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels

The venom derived from various sources of snakes represents a vast collection of predominantly protein-based toxins that exhibit a wide range of biological actions, including but not limited to inflammation, pain, cytotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. The venom of a particular snake species is composed of several toxins, while the venoms of around 600 venomous snake species collectively encompass a substantial reservoir of pharmacologically intriguing compounds. Despite extensive research efforts, a significant portion of snake venoms remains uncharacterized. Recent findings have demonstrated the potential application of neurotoxins derived from snake venom in selectively targeting voltage-gated potassium channels (Kv). These neurotoxins include BPTI-Kunitz polypeptides, PLA2 neurotoxins, CRISPs, SVSPs, and various others. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature on the significance of Kv channels in various tissues, highlighting their crucial role as proteins susceptible to modulation by diverse snake venoms. These toxins have demonstrated potential as valuable pharmacological resources and research tools for investigating the structural and functional characteristics of Kv channels.