Ginsenoside Rg3 suppresses the growth of gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic cancer cells by upregulating lncRNA-CASC2 and activating PTEN signaling

Recent advances in nano and micro formulations of Ginsenoside to enhance their therapeutic efficacy

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Ginsenosides, the main component of Panax ginseng, have long been recognized for their therapeutic benefits and are thought to have neuroprotective, antidiabetic, anti-depressant, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-stress properties. However, due to their low water solubility, low biomembrane permeability, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and total metabolism in the body, ginsenosides have a poor absorption profile that has hindered the therapeutic potential of these organic molecules.

METHODS

Initially, we broadly illuminated the several techniques of extraction of Ginsenosides using Panax quinquefolius and Panax ginseng. Subsequently, we focused on different delivery methods to improve the stability, permeability, and solubility of natural chemicals, which raises the bioavailability of ginsenoside. Lastly, we explained significance of a variety of nano and microscale delivery systems, including liposomes, ethosomes, transfersomes, metal/metal oxide systems, micro/nanoemulsions, polymeric micro/nanoparticles (NPs), liposomes, transfersomes, and micelles to increase the bioavailability of ginsenosides.

RESULTS

The utilization of micro/nanoscale delivery methods, such as liposome-based delivery, polymer micro/nanoparticle distribution, and micro/nanoemulsion, to increase the bioavailability of ginsenosides has recently advanced, and we have emphasized these advances in this study. Furthermore, the disadvantages of ginsenosides were also discussed, including the challenges associated with putting these delivery systems into practice in clinical settings and suggestions for further research.

CONCLUSION

In summary, ginsenosides-based administration has several benefits that make it a potentially useful substance for a range of therapeutic purposes.

Traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of cancers of hepatobiliary system: from clinical evidence to drug discovery

Hepatic, biliary, and pancreatic cancer pose significant challenges in the field of digestive system diseases due to their highly malignant nature. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained attention as a potential therapeutic approach with long-standing use in China and well-recognized clinical benefits. In this review, we systematically summarized the clinical applications of TCM that have shown promising results in clinical trials in treating hepatic, biliary, and pancreatic cancer. We highlighted several commonly used TCM therapeutics with validated efficacy through rigorous clinical trials, including Huaier Granule, Huachansu, and Icaritin. The active compounds and their potential targets have been thoroughly elucidated to offer valuable insights into the potential of TCM for anti-cancer drug discovery. We emphasized the importance of further research to bridge the gap between TCM and modern oncology, facilitating the development of evidence-based TCM treatment for these challenging malignancies.

Ginsenosides in cancer: Proliferation, metastasis, and drug resistance

Ginseng, the dried root of Panax ginseng C.A. Mey., is widely used in Chinese herbal medicine. Ginsenosides, the primary active components of ginseng, exhibit diverse anticancer functions through various mechanisms, such as inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, promoting apoptosis, and suppressing cell invasion and migration. In this article, the mechanism of action of 20 ginsenoside subtypes in tumor therapy and the research progress of multifunctional nanosystems are reviewed, in order to provide reference for clinical prevention and treatment of cancer.

Human disease-related long noncoding RNAs: Impact of ginsenosides

Ginsenosides in ginseng are known for their potential health benefits, including antioxidant properties and their potential to exhibit anticancer effects. Besides a various range of coding genes, ginsenosides impose their efficacy by targeting noncoding RNAs. Long noncoding RNA ( lncRNA) has gained significant attention from both basic and clinical oncology fields due to its involvement in various cancer cell activities such as proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and autophagy. These events can be achieved either by lncRNA alone or in association with microRNAs or proteins. This review aims to summarize the diverse activities of lncRNAs that are regulated by ginsenosides, focusing on their role in regulating target genes through signaling pathways in human diseases. We highlight the results of studies on the expression profiles of lncRNAs induced by ginsenosides in efforts to inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Finally, we discuss the potential and challenges of utilizing lncRNAs as diagnostic markers for disease treatment.

Unveiling the experimental proof of the anticancer potential of ginsenoside Rg3 (Review)

Ginsenoside Rg3 (GS-Rg3), a sterol molecule isolated from ginseng, has demonstrated various immunological properties, including inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and metastasis, reversal of drug resistance and enhancement of chemotherapy sensitivity. The recent surge in attention towards GS-Rg3 can be attributed to its potential as an antitumor angiogenesis agent and as a therapeutic candidate for immunotherapy. The development of GS-Rg3 as an agent for these purposes has accelerated research on its mechanisms of action. The present review summarizes recent studies investigating the antitumor activity of GS-Rg3 and its underlying mechanisms, as well as providing essential information for future studies on GS-Rg3.

Acquired and intrinsic gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer therapy: Environmental factors, molecular profile and drug/nanotherapeutic approaches

A high number of cancer patients around the world rely on gemcitabine (GEM) for chemotherapy. During local metastasis of cancers, surgery is beneficial for therapy, but dissemination in distant organs leads to using chemotherapy alone or in combination with surgery to prevent cancer recurrence. Therapy failure can be observed as a result of GEM resistance, threatening life of pancreatic cancer (PC) patients. The mortality and morbidity of PC in contrast to other tumors are increasing. GEM chemotherapy is widely utilized for PC suppression, but resistance has encountered its therapeutic impacts. The purpose of current review is to bring a broad concept about role of biological mechanisms and pathways in the development of GEM resistance in PC and then, therapeutic strategies based on using drugs or nanostructures for overcoming chemoresistance. Dysregulation of the epigenetic factors especially non-coding RNA transcripts can cause development of GEM resistance in PC and miRNA transfection or using genetic tools such as siRNA for modulating expression level of these factors for changing GEM resistance are suggested. The overexpression of anti-apoptotic proteins and survival genes can contribute to GEM resistance in PC. Moreover, supportive autophagy inhibits apoptosis and stimulates GEM resistance in PC cells. Increase in metabolism, glycolysis induction and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) stimulation are considered as other factors participating in GEM resistance in PC. Drugs can suppress tumorigenesis in PC and inhibit survival factors and pathways in increasing GEM sensitivity in PC. More importantly, nanoparticles can increase pharmacokinetic profile of GEM and promote its blood circulation and accumulation in cancer site. Nanoparticles mediate delivery of GEM with genes and drugs to suppress tumorigenesis in PC and increase drug sensitivity. The basic research displays significant connection among dysregulated pathways and GEM resistance, but the lack of clinical application is a drawback that can be responded in future.

Long non-coding RNAs and pancreatic cancer: A multifaceted view

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a highly malignant disease with a 5-year survival rate of only 10%. Families with PC are at greater risk, as are type 2 diabetes, pancreatitis, and other factors. Insufficient early detection methods make this cancer have a poor prognosis. Additionally, the molecular mechanisms underlying PC development remain unclear. Increasing evidence suggests that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) contribute to PC pathology,which may control gene expression by recruiting histone modification complexes to chromatin and interacting with proteins and RNAs. In recent studies, abnormal regulation of lncRNAs has been implicated in PC proliferation, metastasis, invasion, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and chemotherapy resistance suggesting potential clinical implications. The paper reviews the progress of lncRNA research in PC about diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, cancer metastasis, tumor microenvironment regulation, and chemoresistance. Furthermore, lncRNAs may serve as potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers for PC diagnosis and prognosis. This will help improve PC patients' survival rate from a lncRNA perspective.

Targeting miRNAs and Other Non-Coding RNAs as a Therapeutic Approach: An Update

Since the discovery of the first microRNAs (miRNAs, miRs), the understanding of miRNA biology has expanded substantially. miRNAs are involved and described as master regulators of the major hallmarks of cancer, including cell differentiation, proliferation, survival, the cell cycle, invasion, and metastasis. Experimental data indicate that cancer phenotypes can be modified by targeting miRNA expression, and because miRNAs act as tumor suppressors or oncogenes (oncomiRs), they have emerged as attractive tools and, more importantly, as a new class of targets for drug development in cancer therapeutics. With the use of miRNA mimics or molecules targeting miRNAs (i.e., small-molecule inhibitors such as anti-miRS), these therapeutics have shown promise in preclinical settings. Some miRNA-targeted therapeutics have been extended to clinical development, such as the mimic of miRNA-34 for treating cancer. Here, we discuss insights into the role of miRNAs and other non-coding RNAs in tumorigenesis and resistance and summarize some recent successful systemic delivery approaches and recent developments in miRNAs as targets for anticancer drug development. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive overview of mimics and inhibitors that are in clinical trials and finally a list of clinical trials based on miRNAs.

Role of long non-coding RNAs in pancreatic cancer pathogenesis and treatment resistance- A review

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the deadliest cancers associated with poor prognosis. The lack of reliable means of early cancer detection contributes to this disease's dismal prognosis. Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) are protein-free RNAs produced by genome transcription; they play critical roles in gene expression regulation, epigenetic modification, cell proliferation, differentiation, and reproduction. Recent research has shown that lncRNAs play important regulatory roles in PC behaviors, in addition to their recently found functions. Several in-depth investigations have shown that lncRNAs are strongly linked to PC development and progression. Here, we discuss how lncRNAs, which are often overlooked, play many roles as regulators in the molecular mechanism underlying PC. This review also discusses the involved LncRNAs in PC pathogenesis and treatment resistance.

Wogonin increases gemcitabine sensitivity in pancreatic cancer by inhibiting Akt pathway

Pancreatic cancer has a high degree of malignancy and a low 5-year survival rate, and drug resistance is one of the main factors leading to poor prognosis of pancreatic cancer. Wogonin is a flavonoid drug isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis, which has certain antitumor activity. Hence the purpose of this study was to investigate whether wogonin can be used to enhance the sensitivity of pancreatic cancer to gemcitabine chemotherapy, and investigate its possible sensitization mechanism. In vitro, MTT assay showed that wogonin increased gemcitabine cytotoxicity in gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic cancer cells. In vivo, Wogonin combined with gemcitabine was found to inhibit tumor growth in orthotopic pancreatic cancer mouse model. In order to explore the sensitization mechanism, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of the gemcitabine-resistant cell line Panc-1 and the gemcitabine-sensitive cell line Bxpc-3 were screened through the GEO database, and 15 differentially expressed genes were obtained by intersecting with the potential targets of wogonin. Gene Ontology and KEGG enrichment analysis was performed. Bioinformatics results predicted that wogonin promoted pancreatic cancer cell apoptosis by inhibiting protein kinase B (Akt) signaling, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of gemcitabine to Pancreatic cancer. The above results were also verified by flow cytometry and Western blotting experiments. In conclusion, wogonin may enhance the sensitivity of gemcitabine by inhibiting Akt pathway.

Protective effect of total saponins of ginseng stems and leaves (GSLS) on chlorpyrifos-induced brain toxicity in mice through the PTEN/PI3K/AKT axis

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a class of toxic compounds which has been widely used in agriculture that can cause multi-organ damage to the liver, kidneys, testes, and nervous system. Currently, most studies on ginseng have concentrated on the roots and rhizomes, and less research has been conducted on the above-ground parts. Our laboratory found that ginseng stem and leaf total saponin (GSLS) features strong antioxidant activity. In this experiment, we selected different concentrations of CPF to induce hippocampal neuronal cell injury model in mice, conducted a cell survival screening test, and also selected appropriate concentrations of CPF to induce brain injury model in mice. CCK-8, flow cytometry, Elisa, Hoechst 33258 staining, Annexin V-FITC/PI staining, HE staining, Morris water maze, and qRT-PCR were adopted for detecting the effects of GSLS treatment on CPF-induced cell viability, mitochondrial membrane potential, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, Ca2+ concentration and GSLS treatment on CPF-induced brain injury and related signaling in mice, respectively. The effects of GSLS treatment on CPF-induced brain injury and the related signaling pathways in mice were examined. The results showed that GSLS at 60 μg/ml and 125 μg/ml concentrations elevated the viability of CPF-induced HT22 cells, increased mitochondrial membrane potential, depleted ROS, decreased Ca2+ concentration, and decreased apoptosis rate. Meanwhile, GSLS treatment significantly reduced CPF-induced escape latency in mice, elevated the number of entries into the plateau and effective area, increased the effective area and target quadrant residence time, as well as improved the pathological damage of mouse hippocampal neurons. The results of mouse brain sections demonstrated that GSLS treatment significantly increased SOD and CAT activities and lowered MDA accumulation in CPF-induced mice. qRT-PCR revealed that PTEN mRNA expression was significantly decreased with PI3K and AKT expression being significantly increased in GSLS-treated CPF-induced mice. Thus, the obtained results indicate that GSLS can effectively antagonize CPF-induced brain toxicity in mice through regulating PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway.

The therapeutic potential of natural products for treating pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most malignant tumors of the digestive tract, with the poor prognosis and low 5-year survival rate less than 10%. Although surgical resection and chemotherapy as gemcitabine (first-line treatment) has been applied to the pancreatic cancer patients, the overall survival rates of pancreatic cancer are quite low due to drug resistance. Therefore, it is of urgent need to develop alternative strategies for its treatment. In this review, we summarized the major herbal drugs and metabolites, including curcumin, triptolide, Panax Notoginseng Saponins and their metabolites etc. These compounds with antioxidant, anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic activities can inhibit the progression and metastasis of pancreatic cancer. Expecting to provide comprehensive information of potential natural products, our review provides valuable information and strategies for pancreatic cancer treatment.

Research progress of ginseng in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers

Cancer has become one of the major causes of human death. Several anticancer drugs are available; howeve their use and efficacy are limited by the toxic side effects and drug resistance caused by their continuous application. Many natural products have antitumor effects with low toxicity and fewer adverse effects. Moreover, they play an important role in enhancing the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents, reducing toxic side effects, and reversing chemoresistance. Consequently, natural drugs are being applied as potential therapeutic options in the field of antitumor treatment. As natural medicinal plants, some components of ginseng have been shown to have excellent efficacy and a good safety profile for cancer treatment. The pharmacological activities and possible mechanisms of action of ginseng have been identified. Its broad range of pharmacological activities includes antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-stress, anti-fibrotic, central nervous system modulating, cardioprotective, and immune-enhancing effects. Numerous studies have also shown that throuth multiple pathways, ginseng and its active ingredients exert antitumor effects on gastrointestinal (GI) tract tumors, such as esophageal, gastric, colorectal, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Herein, we introduced the main components of ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and sterols, etc., and reviewed the mechanism of action and research progress of ginseng in the treatment of various GI tumors. Futhermore, the pathways of action of the main components of ginseng are discussed in depth to promote the clinical development and application of ginseng in the field of anti-GI tumors.

Long non-coding RNA SNHG16 decreased SMAD4 to induce gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer via EZH2-mediated epigenetic modification

Gemcitabine resistance (GR) in pancreatic cancer (PC) results in poor patient outcomes. SMAD family member (Smad4) dysregulation is a significant role of GR in PC, and EZH2 is involved in Smad4 expression in tumor progression. Interestingly, lncRNA small nucleolar RNA host gene 16 (SNHG16) might interact with EZH2, indicating a potential pathway to overcome gemcitabine-resistant PC progression. We investigated the role of the SNHG16/EZH2/Smad4 pathway in gemcitabine-resistant PC cells (PANC-1/GR and SW1990/GR). First, we found that SNHG16 was upregulated both in wild-type PC cells and in gemcitabine-resistant PC cells. SNHG16 overexpression reduced gemcitabine cytotoxicity and apoptosis in PC cells. Meanwhile, SNHG16 upregulation caused p-Akt elevation and Smad4 reduction. However, SNHG16 silencing induced the opposite trend. Then, we found that EZH2 was enriched in SNHG16 based on RIP and RNA pulldown. In particular, SNHG16 overexpression promoted the interaction between EZH2 and the Smad4 promoter according to Chromatin immunoprecipitation-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Finally, both EZH2 inhibition and Smad4 upregulation increased gemcitabine cytotoxicity and apoptosis in PC cells during SNHG16 overexpression. Moreover, both treatments decreased p-Akt and increased Smad4. Collectively, lncRNA SNHG16 decreased Smad4 to induce GR in PC via EZH2-mediated epigenetic modification.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in pancreatic cancer progression

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are RNA molecules involved in gene regulation at transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and epigenetic levels. LncRNAs participate in regulating apoptosis and autophagy in pancreatic cancer (PCa) and can promote and/or decrease the proliferation rate of tumor cells. The metastasis of PCa cells is tightly regulated by lncRNAs and they can affect the mechanism of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to modulate metastasis. The drug resistance of PCa cells, especially to gemcitabine, can be affected by lncRNAs. In addition, lncRNAs enriched in exosomes can be transferred among tumor cells to regulate their proliferation and metastasis. Antitumor compounds, such as curcumin and ginsenosides, can regulate lncRNA expression in PCa therapy. As we discuss here, the expression level of lncRNAs can be considered as both a diagnostic and prognostic tool in patients with PCa.

Emerging roles of long noncoding RNAs in chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer death in the world due to the lack of early symptoms, metastasis occurrence and chemoresistance. Therefore, early diagnosis by detection of biomarkers, blockade of metastasis, and overcoming chemoresistance are the effective strategies to improve the survival of pancreatic cancer patients. Accumulating evidence has revealed that long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) and circular RNAs (circRNAs) play essential roles in modulating chemosensitivity in pancreatic cancer. In this review article, we will summarize the role of lncRNAs in drug resistance of pancreatic cancer cells, including HOTTIP, HOTAIR, PVT1, linc-ROR, GAS5, UCA1, DYNC2H1-4, MEG3, TUG1, HOST2, HCP5, SLC7A11-AS1 and CASC2. We also highlight the function of circRNAs, such as circHIPK3 and circ_0000284, in regulation of drug sensitivity of pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, we describe a number of compounds, including curcumin, genistein, resveratrol, quercetin, and salinomycin, which may modulate the expression of lncRNAs and enhance chemosensitivity in pancreatic cancers. Therefore, targeting specific lncRNAs and cicrRNAs could contribute to reverse chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer cells. We hope this review might stimulate the studies of lncRNAs and cicrRNAs, and develop the new therapeutic strategy via modulating these noncoding RNAs to promote chemosensitivity of pancreatic cancer cells.

Ginsenoside Rg3 ameliorates acute pancreatitis by activating the NRF2/HO‑1‑mediated ferroptosis pathway

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is an inflammatory disorder that has been associated with systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Ginsenoside Rg3 is a major active component of Panax ginseng, which has been demonstrated to exert potent protective effects on hyperglycemia and diabetes. However, it remains to be determined whether Rg3 ameliorates AP. Thus, an in vitro AP cell model was established in the present study by exposing AR42J cells to cerulein (Cn). AR42J cell viability was increased in the Rg3‑treated group as compared with the Cn‑exposed group. Simultaneously, the number of dead AR42J cells was decreased in the Rg3‑treated group compared with the group treated with Cn only. Furthermore, following treatment with Rg3, the production of malondialdehyde (MDA) and ferrous ion (Fe2+) in the AR42J cells was reduced, accompanied by increased glutathione (GSH) levels. Western blot analysis revealed that the decrease in glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and cystine/glutamate transporter (xCT) levels induced by Cn were reversed by Rg3 treatment in the AR42J cells. Mice treated with Cn exhibited increased serum amylase levels, as well as increased levels of TNFα, IL‑6, IL‑1β, pancreatic MDA, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Fe2+ production. Following Rg3 treatment, ROS accumulation and cell death were decreased in the pancreatic tissues compared with the AP group. Furthermore, in the pancreatic tissues of the AP model, the expression of nuclear factor‑erythroid factor 2‑related factor 2 (NRF2)/heme oxygenase 1 (HO‑1)/xCT/GPX4 was suppressed. In comparison, the NRF2/HO‑1/xCT/GPX4 pathway was activated in pancreatic tissues following Rg3 administration. Taken together, the present study, to the best of our knowledge, is the first to reveal a protective role for Rg3 in mice with AP by suppressing oxidative stress‑related ferroptosis and the activation of the NRF2/HO‑1 pathway.

USP22-mediated deubiquitination of PTEN inhibits pancreatic cancer progression by inducing p21 expression

Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN) is a dual lipid and protein phosphatase. Multiple mechanisms contributing to the regulation of PTEN levels have been identified thus far, including post-translational modifications, epigenetic mechanisms, and transcriptional mechanisms. In the present study, we identified ubiquitin-specific peptidase 22 (USP22) as a novel deubiquitination-modifying enzyme of PTEN. Furthermore, by inducing deubiquitination and inhibiting the degradation of PTEN, USP22 could induce cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (CDKN1A, also symboled as p21) expression in pancreatic cancer. Besides, MDM2 proto-oncogene (MDM2) inhibitor enhanced the antipancreatic cancer effects of USP22 overexpression. In addition to its regulation of MDM2-tumor protein p53 (p53) signaling, we found that PTEN could induce p21 expression by interacting with ankyrin repeat and KH domain containing 1 (ANKHD1) and inhibiting ANKHD1 binding to the p21 promoter. Taken together, our results indicate that ANKHD1 and MDM2 might be novel therapeutic targets in pancreatic cancer.

The lncRNA CASC2 Modulates Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Sensitivity and Resistance to TRAIL Through Apoptotic and Non-Apoptotic Signaling

The immune cytokine tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has been widely concerned as a tumor therapy because of its ability of selective triggering cancer cell apoptosis; nevertheless, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) exhibits acquired resistance to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. In the present study, tumor-suppressive lncRNA cancer susceptibility candidate 2 (CASC2) was downregulated in HCC tissues and cell lines; HCC patients with lower CASC2 expression predicted a shorter overall survival rate. In vitro, CASC2 overexpression dramatically repressed HCC cell proliferation and inhibited cell apoptosis; in vivo, CASC2 overexpression inhibited subcutaneous xenotransplant tumor growth. CASC2 affected the caspase cascades and NF-κB signaling in TRAIL-sensitive [Huh-7 (S) and HCCLM3 (S)] or TRAIL-resistant cell lines [Huh-7 (R) and HCCLM3 (R)] in different ways. In Huh-7 (S) and HCCLM3 (S) cells, CASC2 affected cell apoptosis through the miR-24/caspase-8 and miR-221/caspase-3 axes and the caspase cascades. miR-18a directly targeted CASC2 and RIPK1. In Huh-7 (R) and HCCLM3 (R) cells, CASC2 affected cell proliferation through the miR-18a/RIPK1 axis and the NF-κB signaling. RELA bound to CASC2 promoter region and inhibited CASC2 transcription. In conclusion, CASC2 affects cell growth mainly via the miR-24/caspase-8 and miR-221/caspase-3 axes in TRAIL-sensitive HCC cells; while in TRAIL-resistant HCC cells, CASC2 affects cell growth mainly via miR-18a/RIPK1 axis and the NF-κB signaling. These outcomes foreboded that CASC2 could be a novel therapeutic target for further study of HCC-related diseases.

Emerging Significance of Ginsenosides as Potentially Reversal Agents of Chemoresistance in Cancer Therapy

Chemoresistance has become a prevalent phenomenon in cancer therapy, which alleviates the effect of chemotherapy and makes it difficult to break the bottleneck of the survival rate of tumor patients. Current approaches for reversing chemoresistance are poorly effective and may cause numerous new problems. Therefore, it is urgent to develop novel and efficient drugs derived from natural non-toxic compounds for the reversal of chemoresistance. Researches in vivo and in vitro suggest that ginsenosides are undoubtedly low-toxic and effective options for the reversal of chemoresistance. The underlying mechanism of reversal of chemoresistance is correlated with inhibition of drug transporters, induction of apoptosis, and modulation of the tumor microenvironment(TME), as well as the modulation of signaling pathways, such as nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (NRF2)/AKT, lncRNA cancer susceptibility candidate 2(CASC2)/ protein tyrosine phosphatase gene (PTEN), AKT/ sirtuin1(SIRT1), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)/ phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT, PI3K/AKT/ mammalian target of rapamycin(mTOR) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Since the effects and the mechanisms of ginsenosides on chemoresistance reversal have not yet been reviewed, this review summarized comprehensively experimental data in vivo and in vitro to elucidate the functional roles of ginsenosides in chemoresistance reversal and shed light on the future research of ginsenosides.

Modulation of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Different Classes of Secondary Metabolites from Plants: A Mini-Review on Antitumor Effects

The broad pharmacological spectrum of plants is related to their secondary metabolism, which is responsible for the synthesis of different compounds that have multiple effects on cellular physiology. Among the biological effects presented by phytochemicals, their use for the prevention and treatment of cancer can be highlighted. This occurs due to several mechanisms of antitumor action demonstrated by these compounds, including regulation of the cell signaling pathways and inhibition of tumor growth. In this way, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) appear to be promising targets for the treatment of cancer. Their deregulation has already been related to a variety of clinical-pathological parameters. However, the effects of secondary metabolites on lncRNAs are still restricted. For this reason, the present review aimed to gather data on phytochemicals with action on lncRNAs in order to confirm their possible antitumor potential. According to the literature, terpenoid and flavonoid are the main examples of secondary metabolites involved with lncRNAs activity. In addition, the lncRNAs H19, CASC2, HOTAIR, NKILA, CCAT1, MALAT1, AFAP1-AS1, MEG3, and CDKN2B-AS1 can be highlighted as important targets in the search for new anti-tumor agents since they act as modulating pathways related to cell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, cell migration and invasion. Finally, challenges for the use of natural products as a commercial drug were also discussed. The low yield, selectivity index and undesirable pharmacokinetic parameters were emphasized as a difficulty for obtaining these compounds on a large scale and for improving the potency of its biological effect. However, the synthesis and/or development of formulations were suggested as a possible approach to solve these problems. All of these data together confirm the potential of secondary metabolites as a source of new anti-tumor agents acting on lncRNAs.

LncRNAs in tumor microenvironment: The potential target for cancer treatment with natural compounds and chemical drugs

It was thought that originally long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were a kind of RNAs without any encoding function. Recently, a variety of studies have shown that lncRNAs play important roles in many life activities. The abnormal expression of lncRNAs in tumor microenvironment (TME) usually promotes the proliferation, migration, and drug resistance of tumor cells through direct or indirect effects, which also usually predicts the poor prognosis. The regulation of lncRNAs expression in TME could significantly inhibit tumor progress. However, the interaction between lncRNAs and TME has not been fully defined at present. Therefore, this paper provided the systemic summary of their interaction and natural products and chemicals targeting lncRNAs in cancer treatment. Currently, the strategies of cancer treatment still have their limits. Understanding the relationship between TME and lncRNAs can help us to realize breakthrough strategy for tumor treatment.

Zhoushi Qi Ling decoction represses docetaxel resistance and glycolysis of castration-resistant prostate cancer via regulation of SNHG10/miR-1271-5p/TRIM66 axis

Docetaxel resistance developed in half of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) patients hinders its long-term clinical application. The current study was designed to investigate the effects of Chinese medicine Zhoushi Qi Ling decoction on the docetaxel resistance of prostate cancer as well as elucidate the underlying molecular mechanism. In our study, Qi Ling significantly decreased viability and colony formation as well as increased apoptosis of docetaxel-resistant (DR) CRPC cells. Qi Ling-treated DR cells exhibited decreased glucose consumption, lactate release and pyruvate production. Moreover, lncRNA SNHG10 was upregulated in DR tissues of CRPC patients and was negatively correlated with the progression-free survival. Bioinformatics analysis indicated miR-1271-5p as the associated miRNA possibly binding with SNHG10. miR-1271-5p up-regulation dramatically decreased the luciferase activity of SNHG10 in DR cells. SNHG10 knockdown sharply increased the expression of miR1271-5p in DR cells. Targetscan predicted TRIM66 as one of the downstream targets of miR-1271-5p. miR-1271-5p up-regulation drastically reduced luciferase activity as well as TRIM66 expression in DR cells. Also, the knockdown of SNHG10 remarkably suppressed the expression of TRIM66 in DR cells. Additionally, Qi Ling treatment reduced SNHG10 and TRIM66, while increased miR1271-5p, in DR cells. In summary, Qi Ling inhibited docetaxel resistance and glycolysis of CRPC possibly via SNHG10/miR-1271-5p/TRIM66 pathway.

Phytochemistry of ginsenosides: Recent advancements and emerging roles

Ginsenosides, a group of tetracyclic saponins, accounts for the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical relevance of the ginseng (Panax sp.) herb. Owing to the associated therapeutic potential of ginsenosides, their demand has been increased significantly in the last two decades. However, a slow growth cycle, low seed production, and long generation time of ginseng have created a gap between the demand and supply of ginsenosides. The biosynthesis of ginsenosides involves an intricate network of pathways with multiple oxidation and glycosylation reactions. However, the exact functions of some of the associated genes/proteins are still not completely deciphered. Moreover, ginsenoside estimation and extraction using analytical techniques are not feasible with high efficiency. The present review is a step forward in recapitulating the comprehensive aspects of ginsenosides including their distribution, structural diversity, biotransformation, and functional attributes in both plants and animals including humans. Moreover, ginsenoside biosynthesis in the potential plant sources and their metabolism in the human body along with major regulators and stimulators affecting ginsenoside biosynthesis have also been discussed. Furthermore, this review consolidates biotechnological interventions to enhance the biosynthesis of ginsenosides in their potential sources and advancements in the development of synthetic biosystems for efficient ginsenoside biosynthesis to meet their rising industrial demands.

Carbon nanotubes (CNT)-loaded ginsenosides Rb3 suppresses the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in triple-negative breast cancer

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), as advanced nanotechnology with specific properties and structures, have presented practical drug delivery properties. Ginsenoside Rg3 is a component of puffed ginseng and demonstrates anti-cancer activities. To explore the effect of CNTs-loaded Rg3 (Rg3-CNT) on the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling and the development of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Our data revealed that Rg3 inhibited the cell viability of TNBC cells, in which Rg3-CNT further enhanced this effect in the system. Similarly, the colony formation of TNBC cells was decreased by Rg3, while Rg3-CNT could reinforce its effect in the cells. Besides, the treatment of Rg3 induced apoptosis of TNBC cells, in which Rg3-CNT treatment further increased the phenotype in the cells. Remarkably, Rg3-CNT, but not Rg3, attenuated PD-L1 expression in TNBC cells. Rg3-CNT decreased the PD-L1 upregulation induced by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in breast cancer cells. Importantly, Rg3-CNT was able to reduce PD-1 expression in activated T cells. Specifically, Rg3-CNT reduced the PD-1/PD-L1 axis in a T cell/triple-negative TNBC cell co-culture system. Moreover, the levels of IFN-γ, interleukins-2 (IL-2), interleukins-9 (IL-9), interleukins-10 (IL-10), interleukins-22 (IL-22), and interleukins-23 (IL-23) were significantly stimulated in the activated T cells, while the treatment of Rg3-CNT could reverse these phenotypes in the cells. Rg3-CNT attenuated the TNBC cell growth in vivo. The Rg3-CNT improved the anti-cancer effect of Rg3 toward TNBC by inhibiting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis. Our finding provides new insights into the mechanism by which Rg3-CNT attenuates the development of TNBC. Rg3-CNT may be applied as the potential therapeutic strategy for immunotherapy of TNBC.

Regulation of Hippo, TGFβ/SMAD, Wnt/β-Catenin, JAK/STAT, and NOTCH by Long Non-Coding RNAs in Pancreatic Cancer

Rapidly evolving and ever-increasing knowledge of the molecular pathophysiology of pancreatic cancer has leveraged our understanding altogether to a next level. Compared to the exciting ground-breaking discoveries related to underlying mechanisms of pancreatic cancer onset and progression, however, there had been relatively few advances in the therapeutic options available for the treatment. Since the discovery of the DNA structure as a helix which replicates semi-conservatively to pass the genetic material to the progeny, there has been conceptual refinement and continuous addition of missing pieces to complete the landscape of central dogma. Starting from transcription to translation, modern era has witnessed non-coding RNA discovery and central role of these versatile regulators in onset and progression of pancreatic cancer. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to act as competitive endogenous RNAs through sequestration and competitive binding to myriad of microRNAs in different cancers. In this article, we set spotlight on emerging evidence of regulation of different signaling pathways (Hippo, TGFβ/SMAD, Wnt/β-Catenin, JAK/STAT and NOTCH) by lncRNAs. Conceptual refinements have enabled us to understand how lncRNAs play central role in post-translational modifications of various proteins and how lncRNAs work with epigenetic-associated machinery to transcriptionally regulate gene network in pancreatic cancer.

Regulation of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Plant Secondary Metabolites: A Novel Anticancer Therapeutic Approach

Simple Summary

Cancer is caused by the rapid and uncontrolled growth of cells that eventually lead to tumor formation. Genetic and epigenetic alterations are among the most critical factors in the onset of carcinoma. Phytochemicals are a group of natural compounds that play an essential role in cancer prevention and treatment. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are potential therapeutic targets of bioactive phytochemicals, and these compounds could regulate the expression of lncRNAs directly and indirectly. Here, we critically evaluate in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects of phytochemicals in numerous human cancers via regulation of lncRNA expression and their downstream target genes.

Abstract

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs that play an essential role in various cellular activities, such as differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of lncRNAs serves a fundamental role in the progression and initiation of various diseases, including cancer. Precision medicine is a suitable and optimal treatment method for cancer so that based on each patient’s genetic content, a specific treatment or drug is prescribed. The rapid advancement of science and technology in recent years has led to many successes in this particular treatment. Phytochemicals are a group of natural compounds extracted from fruits, vegetables, and plants. Through the downregulation of oncogenic lncRNAs or upregulation of tumor suppressor lncRNAs, these bioactive compounds can inhibit metastasis, proliferation, invasion, migration, and cancer cells. These natural products can be a novel and alternative strategy for cancer treatment and improve tumor cells’ sensitivity to standard adjuvant therapies. This review will discuss the antineoplastic effects of bioactive plant secondary metabolites (phytochemicals) via regulation of expression of lncRNAs in various human cancers and their potential for the treatment and prevention of human cancers.

The LINC01410/miR-122-5p/NDRG3 axis is involved in the proliferation and migration of osteosarcoma cells

PURPOSE

It is generally accepted that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) function as vital regulators of tumor development and progression. Long intergenic non-coding RNA 1410 (LINC01410) is a newly discovered lncRNA, and its role in osteosarcoma (OS) is yet to be determined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The expression of LINC01410, microRNA-122-5p (miR-122-5p), and N-myc downstream-regulated gene 3 (NDRG3) in OS tissues was determined using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Interactions between LINC01410, miR-122-5p, and NDRG3 were predicted and verified using bioinformatics tools and luciferase assays. Cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were detected using cell counting Kit-8 and Transwell assays.

RESULTS

LINC01410 was overexpressed in OS tissues. Furthermore, it was confirmed that LINC01410 facilitated OS cell proliferation and migration. Our studies also showed that LINC01410 binds to miR-122-5p, and miR-122-5p binds to NDRG3. Finally, we observed that LINC01410 knockdown inhibited the proliferation, invasion, and migration of OS cells. Knockdown of LINC01410 resulted in the upregulation of miR-122-5p and downregulation of NDRG3.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that the LINC01410/miR-122-5p/NDRG3 axis is involved in the progression of OS.

Ginsenoside from ginseng: a promising treatment for inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an autoimmune disease mediated by immune disorder and termed as one of the most refractory diseases by the Word Health Organization. Its morbidity has increased steadily over the past half century worldwide. Environmental, genetic, infectious, and immune factors are integral to the pathogenesis of IBD. Commonly known as the king of herbs, ginseng has been consumed in many countries for the past 2000 years. Its active ingredient ginsenosides, as the most prominent saponins of ginseng, have a wide range of pharmacological effects. Recent studies have confirmed that the active components of Panax ginseng have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects on IBD, including regulating the balance of immune cells, inhibiting the expression of cytokines, as well as activating Toll-like receptor 4, Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLRP), mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, and so on. Accumulated evidence indicates that ginsenosides may serve as a potential novel therapeutic drug or health product additive in IBD prevention and treatment in the future.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Prevents Oncogenic Long Noncoding RNA ATXN8OS from Inhibiting Tumor-Suppressive microRNA-424-5p in Breast Cancer Cells

Ginsenoside Rg3 exerts antiproliferation activity on cancer cells by regulating diverse noncoding RNAs. However, little is known about the role of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) or their relationship with competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) in Rg3-treated cancer cells. Here, a lncRNA (ATXN8OS) was found to be downregulated via Rg3-mediated promoter hypermethylation in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. SiRNA-induced downregulation of ATXN8OS decreased cell proliferation but increased apoptosis, suggesting that the noncoding RNA possessed proproliferation activity. An in silico search for potential ATXN8OS-targeting microRNAs (miRs) identified a promising candidate (miR-424-5p) based on its high binding score. As expected, miR-424-5p suppressed proliferation and stimulated apoptosis of the MCF-7 cells. The in silico miR-target-gene prediction identified 200 potential target genes of miR-424-5p, which were subsequently narrowed down to seven that underwent hypermethylation at their promoter by Rg3. Among them, three genes (EYA1, DACH1, and CHRM3) were previously known oncogenes and were proven to be oppositely regulated by ATXN8OS and miR-424-5p. When taken together, Rg3 downregulated ATXN8OS that inhibited the tumor-suppressive miR-424-5p, leading to the downregulation of the oncogenic target genes.

Therapeutic effects of ginsenosides on breast cancer growth and metastasis

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related deaths among women worldwide. Thus, the development of new and effective low-toxicity drugs is vital. The specific characteristics of breast cancer have allowed for the development of targeted therapy towards each breast cancer subtype. Nevertheless, increasing drug resistance is displayed by the changing phenotype and microenvironments of the tumor through mutation or dysregulation of various mechanisms. Recently, emerging data on the therapeutic potential of biocompounds isolated from ginseng have been reported. Therefore, in this review, various roles of ginsenosides in the treatment of breast cancer, including apoptosis, autophagy, metastasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, epigenetic changes, combination therapy, and drug delivery system, have been discussed.

PTEN: What we know of the function and regulation of this onco-suppressor factor in bladder cancer?

Bladder cancer accounts for high morbidity and mortality around the world and its incidence rate is suggested to be higher in following years. A number of factors involve in bladder cancer development such as lifestyle and drugs. However, it appears that genetic factors play a significant role in bladder cancer development and progression. Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is a cancer-related transcription factor that is corelated with reduced proliferation and invasion of cancer cells by negatively targeting PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. In the present review, we aimed to explore the role of PTEN in bladder cancer cells and how upstream modulators affect PTEN in this life-threatening disorder. Down-regulation of PTEN is associated with poor prognosis, chemoresistance and progression of cancer cells. Besides, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs and other molecular pathways such as NF-kB are able to target PTEN in bladder cancer cells. Notably, anti-tumor drugs such as kaempferol, β-elemene and sorafenib upregulate the expression of PTEN to exert their inhibitory effects on bladder cancer cells.