Anti-proliferative effects of evodiamine on human prostate cancer cell lines DU145 and PC3

Evodiamine inhibits colorectal cancer cell stemness by disturbing ubiquitin specific protease 4 mediated SOX9 stabilization

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and the second most deadly cancer worldwide. It is of great importance to explore new mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Ubiquitin-specific protease 4 (USP4), as a key regulator of protein stability, has been proven to be closely associated with cancer progression. In addition, it has been found that evodiamine, a novel alkaloid, can effectively inhibit the stemness of colorectal cancer. Based on this, in this study, we explored in depth the interaction mechanism between USP4 and evodiamine in regulating cancer stemness. Our research data showed that the expression level of USP4 in CRC tissues and cells was significantly increased. Further experiments found that overexpression of USP4 could significantly enhance the migration and invasion of CRC and promote the expression of stemness-related genes such as SOX9, OCT4, and CD133. In contrast, knockdown of USP4 expression in CRC cells had the opposite effect. Moreover, USP4 promotes the progression of CRC by mediating the deubiquitination and stabilization of SOX9 protein. At the same time, evodiamine can significantly inhibit the expression of USP4, SOX9, OCT4, and CD133 in CRC cells. Its mechanism of action lies in the fact that evodiamine disrupts the deubiquitination process of USP4 on SOX9 protein, thereby effectively inhibiting the stemness of CRC. Developing an Evodiamine derivative will provide new approach for improving the outcome of CRC patients.

Evodiamine and its nano-based approaches for enhanced cancer therapy: recent advances and challenges

Evodiamine is a bioactive alkaloid extracted from the Evodia rutaecarpa plant. It has various pharmacological effects including anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-obesity, anti-neurodegenerative, anti-depressant, and cardiac protective properties. Evodiamine demonstrates potent anti-cancer activity by inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Despite the health-promoting properties of evodiamine, its clinical use is hindered by low water solubility, poor bioavailability, and toxicity. Thus, there is a need to develop alternative drug delivery systems for evodiamine to enhance its solubility, permeability, and stability, as well as to facilitate targeted, prolonged, and controlled drug release. Nanocarriers can increase the therapeutic potential of evodiamine in cancer therapy while reducing adverse side effects. To date, numerous attempts have been made through the development of smart nanocarriers to overcome the drawbacks of evodiamine. This review focuses on the pharmacological applications, anti-cancer mechanisms, and limitations of evodiamine. Various nanocarriers, including lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, cyclodextrins, and so forth, have been discussed extensively for evodiamine delivery. Nano-drug delivery systems could increase the solubility, bioavailability, stability, and therapeutic efficacy of evodiamine. This review aims to present a comprehensive and critical evaluation of several nano-formulations of evodiamine for cancer therapy. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

PAX6 promotes neuroendocrine phenotypes of prostate cancer via enhancing MET/STAT5A-mediated chromatin accessibility

BACKGROUND

Neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) is a lethal subset of prostate cancer which is characterized by neuroendocrine differentiation and loss of androgen receptor (AR) signaling. Growing evidence reveals that cell lineage plasticity is crucial in the failure of NEPC therapies. Although studies suggest the involvement of the neural transcription factor PAX6 in drug resistance, its specific role in NEPC remains unclear.

METHODS

The expression of PAX6 in NEPC was identified via bioinformatics and immunohistochemistry. CCK8 assay, colony formation assay, tumorsphere formation assay and apoptosis assay were used to illustrate the key role of PAX6 in the progression of in vitro. ChIP and Dual-luciferase reporter assays were conducted to confirm the binding sequences of AR in the promoter region of PAX6, as well as the binding sequences of PAX6 in the promoter regions of STAT5A and MET. For in vivo validation, the xenograft model representing NEPC subtype underwent pathological analysis to verify the significant role of PAX6 in disease progression. Complementary diagnoses were established through public clinical datasets and transcriptome sequencing of specific cell lines. ATAC-seq was used to detect the chromatin accessibility of specific cell lines.

RESULTS

PAX6 expression was significantly elevated in NEPC and negatively regulated by AR signaling. Activation of PAX6 in non-NEPC cells led to NE trans-differentiation, while knock-down of PAX6 in NEPC cells inhibited the development and progression of NEPC. Importantly, loss of AR resulted in an enhanced expression of PAX6, which reprogramed the lineage plasticity of prostate cancer cells to develop NE phenotypes through the MET/STAT5A signaling pathway. Through ATAC-seq, we found that a high expression level of PAX6 elicited enhanced chromatin accessibility, mainly through attenuation of H4K20me3, which typically causes chromatin silence in cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals a novel neural transcription factor PAX6 could drive NEPC progression and suggest that it might serve as a potential therapeutic target for the management of NEPC.

Evodiamine impairs HIF1A histone lactylation to inhibit Sema3A-mediated angiogenesis and PD-L1 by inducing ferroptosis in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is among the most commonly diagnosed solid cancers in male adults. However, most anti-angiogenic therapies and immunotherapies fail to achieve durable remission in advanced PCa. Integrative analysis indicated that Sema3A was negatively correlated with the pathological malignancy and was involved in angiogenesis, cell adhesion, and immune infiltrates in PCa. Sema3A significantly inhibited vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA)-induced colony formation, cell proliferation, and PD-L1 expression in PCa cells. Network pharmacological analysis demonstrated that evodiamine, a natural alkaloid compound derived from Evodiae fructus fruits, might regulate Sema3A, lipid metabolism, and monocarboxylic acid transport signaling of PCa. Evodiamine evidently inhibited PCa cell viability in a time-dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, evodiamine impaired angiogenesis by increasing Sema3A expression, and induced ferroptosis by reducing glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression, which could be reversed by the ferroptosis blocker ferrostatin-1. Lactate treatment increased hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α and PD-L1 expressions while restricting Sema3A expression in PCa cells, which could be reversed by silencing monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) expression. Moreover, evodiamine markedly blocked lactate-induced angiogenesis by restricting histone lactylation and expression of HIF1A in PCa cells, further enhancing Sema3A transcription while inhibiting that of PD-L1. In vivo, evodiamine remarkably inhibited PCa xenograft growth in nude mice, repressing expressions of HIF1α, H3K18la, GPX4, PD-L1, and proliferation, while hindering angiogenesis by increasing Sema3A expression. Therefore, Sema3A represents an essential antineoplastic biomarker, while evodiamine may act as a metabolic-epigenetic modulator, as well as a promising agent in either PCa anti-angiogenic therapy or immunotherapy.

Identification of Promising Drug Candidates against Prostate Cancer through Computationally-Driven Drug Repurposing

Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the most common types of cancer in males. Although early stages of PC are generally associated with favorable outcomes, advanced phases of the disease present a significantly poorer prognosis. Moreover, currently available therapeutic options for the treatment of PC are still limited, being mainly focused on androgen deprivation therapies and being characterized by low efficacy in patients. As a consequence, there is a pressing need to identify alternative and more effective therapeutics. In this study, we performed large-scale 2D and 3D similarity analyses between compounds reported in the DrugBank database and ChEMBL molecules with reported anti-proliferative activity on various PC cell lines. The analyses included also the identification of biological targets of ligands with potent activity on PC cells, as well as investigations on the activity annotations and clinical data associated with the more relevant compounds emerging from the ligand-based similarity results. The results led to the prioritization of a set of drugs and/or clinically tested candidates potentially useful in drug repurposing against PC.

Natural product evodiamine-inspired medicinal chemistry: Anticancer activity, structural optimization and structure-activity relationship

It is a well-known phenomenon that natural products can serve as powerful drug leads to generate new molecular entities with novel therapeutic utility. Evodiamine (Evo), a major alkaloid component in traditional Chinese medicine Evodiae Fructus, is considered a desirable lead scaffold as its multifunctional pharmacological properties. Although natural Evo has suboptimal biological activity, poor pharmacokinetics, low water solubility, and chemical instability, medicinal chemists have succeeded in producing synthetic analogs that overshadow the deficiency of Evo in terms of further clinical application. Recently, several reviews on the synthesis, structural modification, mechanism pharmacological actions, structure-activity relationship (SAR) of Evo have been published, while few reviews that incorporates intensive structural basis and extensive SAR are reported. The purpose of this article is to review the structural basis, anti-cancer activities, and mechanisms of Evo and its derivatives. Emphasis will be placed on the optimizing strategies to improve the anticancer activities, such as structural modifications, pharmacophore combination and drug delivery systems. The current review would benefit further structural modifications of Evo to discover novel anticancer drugs.

Evodiamine as an anticancer agent: a comprehensive review on its therapeutic application, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and metabolism in various cancers

Evodiamine is a major alkaloid component found in the fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa. It shows the anti-proliferative potential against a wide range of cancers by suppressing cell growth, invasion, and metastasis and inducing apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Evodiamine shows its anticancer potential by modulating aberrant signaling pathways. Additionally, the review focuses on several therapeutic implications of evodiamine, such as epigenetic modification, cancer stem cells, and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Moreover, combinatory drug therapeutics along with evodiamine enhances the anticancer efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs in various cancers by overcoming the chemo resistance and radio resistance shown by cancer cells. It has been widely used in preclinical trials in animal models, exhibiting very negligible side effects against normal cells and effective against cancer cells. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics-based collaborations of evodiamine are also included. Due to its poor bioavailability, synthetic analogs of evodiamine and its nano capsule have been formulated to enhance its bioavailability and reduce toxicity. In addition, this review summarizes the ongoing research on the mechanisms behind the antitumor potential of evodiamine, which proposes an exciting future for such interests in cancer biology.

Traditional Medicinal Plants as a Source of Inspiration for Osteosarcoma Therapy

Osteosarcoma is one of the most common types of bone cancers among paediatric patients. Despite the advances made in surgery, chemo-, and radiotherapy, the mortality rate of metastatic osteosarcoma remains unchangeably high. The standard drug combination used to treat this bone cancer has remained the same for the last 20 years, and it produces many dangerous side effects. Through history, from ancient to modern times, nature has been a remarkable source of chemical diversity, used to alleviate human disease. The application of modern scientific technology to the study of natural products has identified many specific molecules with anti-cancer properties. This review describes the latest discovered anti-cancer compounds extracted from traditional medicinal plants, with a focus on osteosarcoma research, and on their cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. The presented compounds have proven to kill osteosarcoma cells by interfering with different pathways: apoptosis induction, stimulation of autophagy, generation of reactive oxygen species, etc. This wide variety of cellular targets confer natural products the potential to be used as chemotherapeutic drugs, and also the ability to act as sensitizers in drug combination treatments. The major hindrance for these molecules is low bioavailability. A problem that may be solved by chemical modification or nano-encapsulation.

Role of Plant-Derived Active Constituents in Cancer Treatment and Their Mechanisms of Action

Despite significant technological advancements in conventional therapies, cancer remains one of the main causes of death worldwide. Although substantial progress has been made in the control and treatment of cancer, several limitations still exist, and there is scope for further advancements. Several adverse effects are associated with modern chemotherapy that hinder cancer treatment and lead to other critical disorders. Since ancient times, plant-based medicines have been employed in clinical practice and have yielded good results with few side effects. The modern research system and advanced screening techniques for plants’ bioactive constituents have enabled phytochemical discovery for the prevention and treatment of challenging diseases such as cancer. Phytochemicals such as vincristine, vinblastine, paclitaxel, curcumin, colchicine, and lycopene have shown promising anticancer effects. Discovery of more plant-derived bioactive compounds should be encouraged via the exploitation of advanced and innovative research techniques, to prevent and treat advanced-stage cancers without causing significant adverse effects. This review highlights numerous plant-derived bioactive molecules that have shown potential as anticancer agents and their probable mechanisms of action and provides an overview of in vitro, in vivo and clinical trial studies on anticancer phytochemicals.

Identification of evodiamine as a suppressor of prostate cancer progression by reducing AR transcriptional activity via targeting Src

Evodiamine (EVO) is a bioactive alkaloid that exerts antitumor activity in various cancers, including prostate cancer (PCa). In this paper, we further investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-PCa effect of evodiamine. In the present study, cell proliferation, colony formation, migration, and invasion were assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), colony formation, and transwell assays, respectively. Animal studies were used to evaluate the effect of evodiamine on the tumorigenicity of LNCaP cells in vivo. The expression levels of steroid receptor coactivator (Src), androgene receptor (AR), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) were detected by western blot, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) or ELISA assay. Association between Src and AR was examined by Co-Immunoprecipitation (CoIP). The impact of evodiamine on AR-mediated transcriptional activity was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assay. The results showed that evodiamine reduced LNCaP and 22Rv1 cell proliferation, colony formation, migration, and invasion induced by dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in vitro, as well as diminished tumor growth in vivo. Mechanistically, evodiamine directly targeted Src and reduced DHT-induced Src activation. Moreover, the restoration of Src activation abolished evodiamine-mediated suppression of proliferation, migration, and invasion of DHT-treated LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells. Furthermore, evodiamine inhibited DHT-induced AR transcriptional activity through targeting Src. As a conclusion, our findings demonstrate the antitumor property of evodiamine in PCa by blocking AR transcriptional activity through targeting Src and provide a rationale for developing evodiamine as a promising antitumor agent against PCa.

Novel Strategy of Proxalutamide for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer through Coordinated Blockade of Lipogenesis and Androgen Receptor Axis

Objective: Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignant tumor diagnosed in men in developed countries. In developing countries, the PCa morbidity and mortality rates are also increasing rapidly. Since androgen receptor (AR) is a key driver and plays a critical role in the regulation of PCa development, AR-targeted agents provide a key component of current therapy regimens. However, even new-generation AR antagonists are prone to drug resistance, and there is currently no effective strategy for overcoming advanced PCa aggressiveness, including drug-resistance progression. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential efficacy and novel therapy strategy of proxalutamide (a newly developed AR antagonist) in PCa. Methods: Four PCa cell lines with various biological heterogeneities were utilized in this study, namely, androgen-sensitive/-insensitive with/without AR expression. Proliferation, migration and apoptosis assays in PCa cells were used to evaluate the effective therapeutic activity of proxalutamide. The changes in lipid droplet accumulation and lipidomic profiles were analyzed to determine the influence of proxalutamide on lipogenesis in PCa cells. The molecular basis of the effects of proxalutamide on lipogenesis and the AR axis was then further investigated. Results: Proxalutamide significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of PCa cells, and its inhibitory effect was superior to that of enzalutamide (Enz, second-generation AR antagonist). Proxalutamide induced the caspase-dependent apoptosis of PCa cells. Proxalutamide significantly diminished the level of lipid droplets in PCa cells, changed the lipid profile of PCa cells and reduced the content of most lipids (especially triglycerides) in PCa cells. Proxalutamide attenuated de novo lipogenesis by inhibiting the expression of ATP citrate lyase (ACL), acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC), fatty acid synthase (FASN) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1). Moreover, proxalutamide also decreased AR expression in PCa cells, and its inhibitory effect on lipogenesis did not depend on its ability to down-regulate AR expression. However, Enz had no effect on AR expression, lipid accumulation or lipid de novo synthesis in PCa cells. Conclusions: By co-targeting the AR axis and endogenous adipogenesis, a novel and promising strategy was established for proxalutamide to combat the progress of PCa. The unique effect of proxalutamide on the metabolic reprogramming of PCa provides a potential solution to overcome the resistance of current AR-targeted therapy, which will help to effectively prolong its clinical service life.

Research progress on evodiamine, a bioactive alkaloid of Evodiae fructus: Focus on its anti-cancer activity and bioavailability (Review)

Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) can be isolated from the dried, unripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum and is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine that is applied extensively in China, Japan and Korea. Evodiae fructus has been traditionally used to treat headaches, abdominal pain and menorrhalgia. In addition, it is widely used as a dietary supplement to provide carboxylic acids, essential oils and flavonoids. Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the major bioactive components contained within Evodiae fructus and is considered to be a potential candidate anti-cancer agent. EVO has been reported to exert anti-cancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, whilst inducing apoptosis in numerous types of cancer cells. However, EVO is susceptible to metabolism and may inhibit the activities of metabolizing enzymes, such as cytochrome P450. Clinical application of EVO in the treatment of cancers may prove difficult due to poor bioavailability and potential toxicity due to metabolism. Currently, novel drug carriers involving the use of solid dispersion techniques, phospholipids and nanocomplexes to deliver EVO to improve its bioavailability and mitigate side effects have been tested. The present review aims to summarize the reported anti-cancer effects of EVO whilst discussing the pharmacokinetic behaviors, characteristics and effective delivery systems of EVO.

Water-soluble derivatives of evodiamine: Discovery of evodiamine-10-phosphate as an orally active antitumor lead compound

10-Hydroxyevodiamine is a multitargeting antitumor lead compound with excellent in vitro activity. However, its in vivo antitumor potency is rather limited, which has hampered its further clinical development. To overcome this obstacle, a series of novel water-soluble derivatives of 10-hydroxyevodiamine were designed and synthesized. Most of them exhibited good to excellent antitumor activities against several cancer cell lines. In particular, phosphate derivative 9 was orally active and showed improved in vivo antitumor efficacy in HCT116 xenograft models. Further antitumor mechanism studies indicated that compound 9 acted by triple Top1/Top2/tubulin inhibition and induced apoptosis with G₂/M cell cycle arrest. Taken together, this study extended the structure-activity relationship of evodiamine and identified phosphate derivative 9 as a promising antitumor lead compound.

Structural simplification of evodiamine: Discovery of novel tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives as potent antitumor agents

Natural products (NPs) have played a crucial role in the discovery and development of antitumor drugs. However, the high structural complexity of NPs generally results in unfavorable physicochemical profiles and poor drug-likeness. A powerful strategy to tackle this obstacle is the structural simplification of NPs by truncating nonessential structures. Herein, a series of tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives were designed by elimination of the D ring of NP evodiamine. Structure-activity relationship studies led to the discovery of compound 45, which displayed highly potent antitumor activity against all the tested cancer cell lines and excellent in vivo antitumor activity in the HCT116 xenograft model with low toxicity. Further mechanistic research indicated that compound 45 acted by dual Top1/2 inhibition and induced caspase-dependent cell apoptosis coupled with G2/M cell cycle arrest. This proof-of-concept study validated the effectiveness of structural simplification in NP-based drug development, discovered compound 45 as a potent antitumor lead compound and enriched the structure-activity relationships of evodiamine.

Evodiamine Inhibits Helicobacter pylori Growth and Helicobacter pylori-Induced Inflammation

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) classified as a class I carcinogen by the World Health Organization (WHO) plays an important role in the progression of chronic gastritis and the development of gastric cancer. A major bioactive component of Evodia rutaecarpa, evodiamine, has been known for its anti-bacterial effect and anti-cancer effects. However, the inhibitory effect of evodiamine against H. pylori is not yet known and the inhibitory mechanisms of evodiamine against gastric cancer cells are yet to be elucidated concretely. In this study, therefore, anti-bacterial effect of evodiamine on H. pylori growth and its inhibitory mechanisms as well as anti-inflammatory effects and its mechanisms of evodiamine on H. pylori-induced inflammation were investigated in vitr. Results of this study showed the growth of the H. pylori reference strains and clinical isolates were inhibited by evodiamine. It was considered one of the inhibitory mechanisms that evodiamine downregulated both gene expressions of replication and transcription machineries of H. pylori. Treatment of evodiamine also induced downregulation of urease and diminished translocation of cytotoxin-associated antigen A (CagA) and vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) proteins into gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cells. This may be resulted from the reduction of CagA and VacA expressions as well as the type IV secretion system (T4SS) components and secretion system subunit protein A (SecA) protein which are involved in translocation of CagA and VacA into host cells, respectively. In particular, evodiamine inhibited the activation of signaling proteins such as the nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway induced by H. pylori infection. It consequently might contribute to reduction of interleukin (IL)-8 production in AGS cells. Collectively, these results suggest anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory effects of evodiamine against H. pylori.

Evodiamine: A review of its pharmacology, toxicity, pharmacokinetics and preparation researches

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Evodia rutaecarpa, a well-known herb medicine in China, is extensively applied in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The plant has the effects of dispersing cold and relieving pain, arresting vomiting, and helping Yang and stopping diarrhea. Modern research demonstrates that evodiamine, the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, is the material basis for its efficacy.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This paper is primarily addressed to summarize the current studies on evodiamine. The progress in research on the pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacokinetics, preparation researches and clinical application are reviewed. Moreover, outlooks and directions for possible future studies concerning it are also discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information of this systematic review was conducted with resources of multiple literature databases including PubMed, Google scholar, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library and so on, with employing a combination of keywords including "pharmacology", "toxicology", "pharmacokinetics" and "clinical application", etc. RESULTS: As the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, evodiamine shows considerable pharmacological activities, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial, heart protection and metabolic disease regulation. However, it is also found that it has significant hepatotoxicity and cardiotoxicity, thereby it should be monitored in clinical. In addition, available data demonstrate that the evodiamine has a needy solubility in aqueous medium. Scientific and reasonable pharmaceutical strategies should be introduced to improve the above defects. Meanwhile, more efforts should be made to develop novel efficient and low toxic derivatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the results from current studies of evodiamine, which is one of the valuable medicinal ingredients from Evodia rutaecarpa. With the assistance of relevant pharmacological investigation, some conventional application and problems in pharmaceutical field have been researched in recent years. In addition, unresolved issues include toxic mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, novel pharmaceutical researches and relationship between residues and intestinal environment, which are still being explored and excavate before achieving integration into clinical practice.

Evodiamine inhibits migration and invasion by Sirt1-mediated post-translational modulations in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most difficult cancers to cure. An important prognostic factor is metastasis, which precludes curative surgical resection. Recent evidences show that Evodiamine (EVO) exerts an inhibitory effect on cancer cell apoptosis, migration, and invasion. In this study, we investigated the effects of EVO on the metastasis of CRC cells in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, wound-healing and transwell assay showed that migration and invasion of HT-29 and HCT-116 CRC cells were inhibited significantly by EVO. Western blot and RT-PCR showed that EVO reduced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in a dose-dependent manner. In EVO-induced cells, the intracellular NAD+/NADH ratio was increased, the level of Sirt1 was increased, and acetyl-NF-κB P65 was decreased. This process was inhibited by nicotinamide, an inhibitor of Sirt1. In vivo, EVO reduced tumor metastasis markedly. These findings provide evidences that EVO suppresses the migration and invasion of CRC cells by inhibiting the acetyl-NF-κB p65 by Sirt1, resulting in suppression of metalloproteinase-9 expression in vitro and in vivo.

Evodiamine induces reactive oxygen species-dependent apoptosis and necroptosis in human melanoma A-375 cells

Melanoma is a common solid malignant tumor with a high frequency of metastasis and relapse. Evodiamine (EVO), a natural small molecule, has recently attracted considerable attention due to its pharmacological action, including its anticancer effects. However, the mechanism of the cytotoxic effect exerted by EVO on tumor cells is not yet fully understood. The present study aimed to evaluate the antitumor effects of evodiamine in human melanoma A-375 cells. The results demonstrated that EVO inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest at the G₂/M stage in human melanoma A-375 cells. The results also revealed that EVO exposure induced the activation of caspase-3, caspase-9 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1, as well as mitochondrial membrane potential dissipation in a time-dependent manner, indicating that EVO induced intrinsic apoptosis in A-375 cells. Furthermore, the results revealed that receptor-interacting serine/threonine kinase (RIP) and RIP3 were sequentially activated, suggesting that necroptosis may also be involved in EVO-induced cell death in A-375 cells. In addition, co-treatment with catalase was demonstrated to significantly attenuate the EVO-induced cell death in A-375 cells, indicating that reactive oxygen species (ROS) may serve an important role in EVO-induced cell death. In conclusion, the results of the present study unveiled a novel mechanism of drug action by EVO in human melanoma cells and suggested its potential value in treating human melanoma by inducing cell death via ROS activation.

Role of Indole Scaffolds as Pharmacophores in the Development of Anti-Lung Cancer Agents

Lung cancer is the leading cause of death in men and women worldwide, affecting millions of people. Between the two types of lung cancers, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is more common than small cell lung cancer (SCLC). Besides surgery and radiotherapy, chemotherapy is the most important method of treatment for lung cancer. Indole scaffold is considered one of the most privileged scaffolds in heterocyclic chemistry. Indole may serve as an effective probe for the development of new drug candidates against challenging diseases, including lung cancer. In this review, we will focus on discussing the existing indole based pharmacophores in the clinical and pre-clinical stages of development against lung cancer, along with the synthesis of some of the selected anti-lung cancer drugs. Moreover, the basic mechanism of action underlying indole based anti-lung cancer treatment, such as protein kinase inhibition, histone deacetylase inhibition, DNA topoisomerase inhibition, and tubulin inhibition will also be discussed.

Evodiamine Mitigates Cellular Growth and Promotes Apoptosis by Targeting the c-Met Pathway in Prostate Cancer Cells

Evodiamine (EVO) is an indoloquinazoline alkaloid that exerts its various anti-oncogenic actions by blocking phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Met, and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways, thus leading to apoptosis of tumor cells. We investigated the ability of EVO to affect hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-induced c-Met/Src/STAT3 activation cascades in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). First, we noted that EVO showed cytotoxicity and anti-proliferation activities in PC-3 and DU145 cells. Next, we found that EVO markedly inhibited HGF-induced c-Met/Src/STAT3 phosphorylation and impaired the nuclear translocation of STAT3 protein. Then, we noted that EVO arrested the cell cycle, caused apoptosis, and downregulated the expression of various carcinogenic markers such as B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), B-cell lymphoma-extra large (Bcl-xL), cyclin D1, cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), survivin, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and matrix metallopeptidases 9 (MMP-9). Moreover, it was observed that in cPC-3 and DU145 cells transfected with c-Met small interfering RNA (siRNA), Src/STAT3 activation was also mitigated and led to a decrease in EVO-induced apoptotic cell death. According to our results, EVO can abrogate the activation of the c-Met/Src/STAT3 signaling axis and thus plays a role as a robust suppressor of tumor cell survival, proliferation, and angiogenesis.

Evodiamine suppresses Notch3 signaling in lung tumorigenesis via direct binding to γ-secretases

BACKGROUND

Notch activation requires proteolytic cleavage of the receptor by γ-secretase protein complex. Inhibition of Notch receptor activation (e.g. Notch3) with γ-secretase inhibitor is a potential new therapeutic approach for the targeted therapy of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, only a few safe and effective γ-secretase inhibitors have been discovered. Evodiamine (EVO), a compound derived from Euodiae Fructus (Chinese name, Wu-Zhu-Yu), exhibits remarkable anti-NSCLC activities. However, the underlying mechanisms of action have yet to be fully elucidated.

PURPOSE

We sought to determine the involvement of Notch3 signaling in the anti-NSCLC effects of EVO, and to explore whether EVO suppressed Notch3 signaling by inhibiting γ-secretase in cultured A549 and H1299 NSCLC cells and in urethane-induced lung cancer FVB mouse model.

METHODS

Cell viability, migration, stemness and cell cycle distribution of EVO were examined by the MTT assay, wound healing assay, soft agar colony assay and flow cytometry analysis, respectively. The binding affinity of EVO and γ-secretase complex was analyzed by molecular docking. Cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) was performed to study the drug-target interactions in NSCLC cells. Protein levels were determined by Western blotting.

RESULTS

EVO dramatically inhibited cell viability, induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, suppressed cell migration, and reduced stemness in NSCLC cells. Mechanistic studies indicated that EVO prevented the γ-secretase cleavage of Notch3 at the cell surface and hence inhibited Notch3 activation. Moreover, EVO notably reduced tumor growth in the mouse model and inhibited Notch3 activity in the tumors.

CONCLUSION

This study provides new insights into the anti-NSCLC action of EVO, and suggests that suppressing Notch3 signaling by inhibiting γ-secretase is a mechanism of action underlying the anti-NSCLC effect of EVO.

BMP9 mediates the anticancer activity of evodiamine through HIF‑1α/p53 in human colon cancer cells

Colon cancer is one of the most common malignancies. Although there has been great development in treatment regimens over the last few decades, its prognosis remains poor. There is still a clinical need to find new drugs for colon cancer. Evodiamine (Evo) is a quinolone alkaloid extracted from the traditional herbal medicine plant Evodia rutaecarpa. In the present study, CCK-8, flow cytometry, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blot analysis and a xenograft tumor model were used to evaluate the anti-cancer activity of Evo in human colon cancer cells and determine the possible mechanism underlying this process. It was revealed that Evo exhibited prominent anti-proliferation and apoptosis-inducing effects in HCT116 cells. Bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9) was notably upregulated by Evo in HCT116 cells. Exogenous BMP9 potentiated the anti-cancer activity of Evo, and BMP9 silencing reduced this effect. In addition, HIF-1α was also upregulated by Evo. The anticancer activity of Evo was enhanced by HIF-1α, but was reduced by HIF-1α silencing. BMP9 potentiated the effect of Evo on the upregulation of HIF-1α, and enhanced the antitumor effect of Evo in colon cancer, which was clearly reduced by HIF-1α silencing. In HCT116 cells, Evo increased the phosphorylation of p53, which was enhanced by BMP9 but reduced by BMP9 silencing. Furthermore, the effect of Evo on p53 was potentiated by HIF-1α and reduced by HIF-1α silencing. The present findings therefore strongly indicated that the anticancer activity of Evo may be partly mediated by BMP9 upregulation, which can activate p53 through upregulation of HIF-1α, at least in human colon cancer.

Evodiamine Eliminates Colon Cancer Stem Cells via Suppressing Notch and Wnt Signaling

Evodiamine, an alkaloid contained in traditional Asian herbal medicines that have been used for hundreds years, is interesting due to its cytotoxic effects against many cancers. We examined the effect of evodiamine on the cancer stem cell (CSC) population and the bulk cultured cancer cells (BCC) of colon cancers to examine the double targeting effect. We found that three colon cancer cell lines’ BCC and CSC are effectively targeted by evodiamine. Evodiamine was able to suppress BCC proliferation and induce apoptosis of the cells captured in G2/M phase, as previously reported. However, evodiamine did not cause the accumulation of CSCs at a certain stage of the cell cycle, resulting in the elimination of stemness through an unknown mechanism. By analyzing the expression of 84 genes related to CSCs in two colon cancer cell lines’ CSC, as well as performing further informatics analyses, and quantitative RT-PCR analyses of 24 CSC genes, we found that evodiamine suppressed the expression of the genes that control key signaling pathways of CSC, namely, WNT and NOTCH signaling, to lead CSC elimination. These results suggest that evodiamine should be further developed for targeting both BCCs and CSCs in colon cancers.

Evodiamine ameliorates paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain by inhibiting inflammation and maintaining mitochondrial anti-oxidant functions

Chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain (CINP) is a common and debilitating side effect of cancer treatment. Evodiamine, a major effective compound isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa, has been associated with anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects, an important therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neuropathic pain. However, the effects of evodiamine on CINP remain unknown. Thus, this study aims to investigate the pharmacological potential of evodiamine in attenuating paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy. The results showed that evodiamine enhanced but not reduced the sensitivity of cancer cells to paclitaxel treatment. In a rat model of paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy, evodiamine significantly ameliorated the development of mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity. Moreover, paclitaxel-induced the loss of intraepidermal nerve fibers was markedly inhibited by evodiamine administration. This inhibitory effect was accompanied with the decrease in inflammatory and chemoattractant cytokines level in dorsal root ganglia (DRG), such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. In addition, evodiamine administration limited paclitaxel-induced elevation of oxidative stress in DRG tissues. The mitochondrial dysfunction evoked by paclitaxel was also remarkably improved in evodiamine-treated rats, evidenced by restoration of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α), uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), and superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) expression. In in vitro studies, we found that evodiamine prevented paclitaxel-induced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and PGC-1α, UCP2 and SOD2 expression in DRG cells. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that evodiamine ameliorates paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain by inhibiting inflammatory response and maintaining mitochondrial anti-oxidant functions, indicating that evodiamine may be a promising therapeutic agent for CINP treatment.

Antiproliferative Effects of Alkaloid Evodiamine and Its Derivatives

Alkaloids, a category of natural products with ring structures and nitrogen atoms, include most U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved plant derived anti-cancer agents. Evodiamine is an alkaloid with attractive multitargeting antiproliferative activity. Its high content in the natural source ensures its adequate supply on the market and guarantees further medicinal study. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review about the antiproliferative effects of evodiamine derivatives. Therefore, in this article the review of the antiproliferative activities of evodiamine will be updated. More importantly, the antiproliferative activities of structurally modified new analogues of evodiamine will be summarized for the first time.

Evodiamine Induces Apoptosis, G2/M Cell Cycle Arrest, and Inhibition of Cell Migration and Invasion in Human Osteosarcoma Cells via Raf/MEK/ERK Signalling Pathway

Background

Osteosarcoma is a prevalent type of bone tumor mainly reported in children and adolescents. The treatments for osteosarcoma are limited and are associated with serious adverse effects. In this study we evaluated the anticancer activity of Evodiamine, a plant-derived natural product, against a panel of osteosarcoma cells and explored the underlying mechanisms.

Material/Methods

The viability of osteosarcoma cell lines was investigated by MTT assay. Apoptosis was detected by DAPI and annexin V/PI staining and cell cycle analysis was performed by flow cytometry. The expression of the proteins was examined by Western blotting.

Results

The results of the present study indicated that Evodiamine inhibited the proliferation of U2OS osteosarcoma cells with an IC₅₀ of 6 μM. Further investigations indicated the antiproliferative effects of Evodiamine are due to induction of apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest. The results of Western blotting revealed that the expression of several apoptosis (Cytochrome c, Bax, Bid, Caspase 3, 9, 8, and PARP) and cell cycle-related proteins (cyclin B1, Cdc25c, and Cdc2) was significantly altered. Evodiamine also suppressed the migration and invasion of U2OS osteosarcoma cells. Moreover, Evodiamine downregulated the expression of important regulatory proteins such as p-MEK and p-ERK, leading to the inhibition of Raf/MEK/ERK signalling pathways.

Conclusions

We found that Evodiamine exerts anticancer effects on osteosarcoma cells and has potential in the treatment of osteosarcoma.

Ethanol Extract of Evodia rutaecarpa Attenuates Cell Growth through Caspase-Dependent Apoptosis in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia-1 Cells

The dried fruits of Evodia rutaecarpa Bentham have been used widely as a herbal medicine for the treatment of inflammatory disorders and abdominal pain. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a nonmalignant disease characterized by overgrowth of prostates. Despite the pharmacological efficacy of the fruits of E. rutaecarpa against various diseases, their effects against BPH have not been reported. Here, we investigated the inhibitory activity of a 70% ethanol extract of E. rutaecarpa (EEER) against BPH, and its underlying mechanisms regarding cell growth of BPH using BPH-1 cells. An in vitro 5α-reductase activity assay showed that EEER exhibited inhibitory activity against 5α-reductase. In BPH-1 cells, EEER treatment inhibited cell viability and reduced the expression of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclin D1, and phosphor-ERK1/2 proteins. Moreover, EEER also induced apoptosis, with chromatin condensation, apoptotic bodies, and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. Regarding its underlying mechanisms, EEER exacerbated the activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3 in a concentration-dependent manner and eventually caused the cleavage of PARP. Taken together, these data demonstrated that EEER had a potent 5α-reductase inhibitory activity and that EEER treatment in BPH-1 cells inhibited cell viability via caspase-8- and caspase-3-dependent apoptosis. Therefore, EEER may be a potential phytotherapeutic agent for the treatment of BPH.

Anticancer Activity of Natural and Synthetic Capsaicin Analogs

The nutritional compound capsaicin is the major spicy ingredient of chili peppers. Although traditionally associated with analgesic activity, recent studies have shown that capsaicin has profound antineoplastic effects in several types of human cancers. However, the applications of capsaicin as a clinically viable drug are limited by its unpleasant side effects, such as gastric irritation, stomach cramps, and burning sensation. This has led to extensive research focused on the identification and rational design of second-generation capsaicin analogs, which possess greater bioactivity than capsaicin. A majority of these natural capsaicinoids and synthetic capsaicin analogs have been studied for their pain-relieving activity. Only a few of these capsaicin analogs have been investigated for their anticancer activity in cell culture and animal models. The present review summarizes the current knowledge of the growth-inhibitory activity of natural capsaicinoids and synthetic capsaicin analogs. Future studies that examine the anticancer activity of a greater number of capsaicin analogs represent novel strategies in the treatment of human cancers.

Evodiamine promotes differentiation and inhibits proliferation of C2C12 muscle cells

Evodiamine is a botanical alkaloid compound extracted from Tetradium plants. Previous studies have reported that evodiamine (Evo) treatment can reduce food uptake and improve insulin resistance in animals . The skeletal muscle comprises about 40% of the body mass of adults and has a vital role in regulating whole body glucose metabolism and energy metabolism. However, the effect of Evo on skeletal muscle is unclear. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of Evo on the differentiation and proliferation of the mouse C2C12 muscle cell line. The results demonstrated that Evo promoted the expression of myogenic marker genes (Myogenin and muscle myosin heavy chain) and increased myoblast differentiation, potentially via activation of the Wnt/β‑catenin pathway. Furthermore, Evo increased mRNA expression of p21, reduced mRNA expression of Cyclin B, Cyclin D and Cyclin E and reduced the percentage of proliferating cells. Also, phosphorylation of ERK1/2 was decreased by Evo treatment during cell proliferation. In conclusion, these findings indicated that Evo has marked effects on skeletal muscle development.

Review on Research about Traditional Chinese Medicine in Cancer Stem Cell

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are small subpopulations of neoplastic cells within a tumor, which have self-renewal and differentiation abilities and could generate new tumors with few cells. Researches have showed that CSCs are considered the most likely reason for cancer recurrence and metastasis. Accumulating evidences have showed that traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has significant effect on CSCs. It could inhibit the proliferation, self-renew, and multidifferentiation of CSCs. We aimed to summarize the theories of CSCs in TCM, the inhibitory effect, and the pathway on CSCs of TCM. This review will provide potential new strategies and alternative perspectives for CSCs treatments and basic research into complementary and alternative medicine.

Effect of evodiamine and berberine on the interaction between DNMTs and target microRNAs during malignant transformation of the colon by TGF-β1

The tissue microenvironment functions as a crucial player in carcinogenesis, and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) within the microenvironment stimulates the formation of neoplasms. Using an in vitro model of malignancy induced by TGF-β1, we assessed the effect of evodiamine and berberine on the interaction between DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) and target microRNAs (miRNAs) in the model. Colon tissues from neonatal rats 7 days of age were cultured and malignancy was induced by TGF-β1 in vitro for 48 h, and then the tissues were respectively treated with evodiamine and berberine for 24 h. Morphological alteration of tissues was observed by an inverted microscope, histological structures were observed using hematoxylin and eosin staining, and the expression levels of DNMTs and targeted miRNAs screened by bioinformatics software combined with Gene chip analysis in our previous study were detected by immunohistochemistry and quantified by real-time PCR. Twenty-four hours after treatment with TGF-β1, expression levels of DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B and miR-152 (target DNMT1), miR-429 (target DNMT3A) and miR-29a (target DNMT3A/3B) were markedly decreased; however, after 48 h, the expression levels of DNMT1 and DNMT3A were significantly increased, but their target miRNAs were still decreased. After treatment with a DNMT inhibitor (5-Aza-dC), expression levels of the miRNAs were increased to a larger extent, but did not reach normal levels. After treatment with berberine and evodiamine for 24 h, respectively, increased expression of DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B and miR-152, miR-429, miR-29a was noted. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that miRNAs can also be post-transcriptionally regulated by their corresponding DNMTs and that berberine and evodiamine regulate the expression of these genes, which provides early epigenetic evidence for the prevention and therapy of colorectal cancer.

Protein Kinase RNA-Like Endoplasmic Reticulum Kinase-Mediated Bcl-2 Protein Phosphorylation Contributes to Evodiamine-Induced Apoptosis of Human Renal Cell Carcinoma Cells

We investigated the anticancer mechanism of evodiamine (EVO) against the viability of human A498 renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cells in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro study showed that EVO decreased the viability of A498 cells with the occurrence of apoptotic characteristics such as hypodiploid cells, DNA ladders, chromatin-condensed cells, and cleaved caspase (Casp)-3/poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Pharmacological studies using chemical inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) indicated that phosphorylation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) protein participated in EVO-induced cell death of A498 cells, and application of the JNK inhibitor, SP600125 (SP), inhibited EVO-induced cleavage of the Casp-3/PARP proteins and chromatin condensation according to Giemsa staining. EVO disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) with increased protein levels of the phosphorylated Bcl-2 protein (p-Bcl-2) was prevented by JNK inhibitors in A498 cells. A structure-activity relationship study showed that a methyl group at position 14 in EVO was important for its apoptotic effects and increased p-Bcl-2 protein in A498 cells. Furthermore, significant increases in the phosphorylated endoplasmic reticular stress protein, protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (p-PERK at Thr980), by EVO were detected in A498 cells, and the PERK inhibitor, GSK2606414, significantly suppressed EVO-induced apoptosis, p-JNK, p-PERK, and cleaved PARP proteins. The in vivo study showed that EVO significantly reduced RCC growth elicited by a subcutaneous injection of A498 cells, and an increased protein level of p-PERK was observed according to an immunohistochemical analysis. Apoptosis by EVO was also demonstrated in other RCC cells such as 786-O, ACHN, and Caki-1 cells. This is the first study to demonstrate the anti-RCC effect of EVO via apoptosis in vitro and in vivo, and activation of JNK and PERK to induce Bcl-2 protein phosphorylation, which led to disruption of the MMP.

Antiproliferative Activity and Cellular Uptake of Evodiamine and Rutaecarpine Based on 3D Tumor Models

Evodiamine (EVO) and rutaecarpine (RUT) are promising anti-tumor drug candidates. The evaluation of the anti-proliferative activity and cellular uptake of EVO and RUT in 3D multicellular spheroids of cancer cells would better recapitulate the native situation and thus better reflect an in vivo response to the treatment. Herein, we employed the 3D culture of MCF-7 and SMMC-7721 cells based on hanging drop method and evaluated the anti-proliferative activity and cellular uptake of EVO and RUT in 3D multicellular spheroids, and compared the results with those obtained from 2D monolayers. The drugs’ IC₅₀ values were significantly increased from the range of 6.4–44.1 μM in 2D monolayers to 21.8–138.0 μM in 3D multicellular spheroids, which may be due to enhanced mass barrier and reduced drug penetration in 3D models. The fluorescence of EVO and RUT was measured via fluorescence spectroscopy and the cellular uptake of both drugs was characterized in 2D tumor models. The results showed that the cellular uptake concentrations of RUT increased with increasing drug concentrations. However, the EVO concentrations uptaken by the cells showed only a small change with increasing drug concentrations, which may be due to the different solubility of EVO and Rut in solvents. Overall, this study provided a new vision of the anti-tumor activity of EVO and RUT via 3D multicellular spheroids and cellular uptake through the fluorescence of compounds.

Effect of evodiamine and berberine on miR-429 as an oncogene in human colorectal cancer

Loss of epithelial organization and deregulated microRNAs are hallmarks of malignant carcinomas, but the relationship between them has been poorly understood. This study was designed to investigate the changes in the expression of E-cadherin, Par3, and miR-429 during the development of human colorectal cancer (CRC). E-cadherin and Par3 levels were quantitatively detected by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. An in vitro culture of colorectal tissue was established to analyze the effect of berberine (BER) and evodiamine (EVO) on the level of miR-429. Our results suggested that E-cadherin and Par3 were remarkably decreased in tumor tissues compared with those in normal tissues, and miR-429 was upregulated in tumor tissues. After treatment of BER and EVO, the level of miR-429 was lower in tumor tissues than in normal tissues. This study investigated the potential relationship between miR-429, E-cadherin, and Par3 in CRC. The data suggested that BER and EVO can be potential therapeutic agents for CRC, as they downregulated the expression level of miR-429.

Evodiamine from Evodia rutaecarpa induces apoptosis via activation of JNK and PERK in human ovarian cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine (EVO; 8,13,13b,14-tetrahydro-14-methylindolo[2'3'-3,4]pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-5-[7H]-one derived from the traditional herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa was reported to possess anticancer activity; however, the anticancer mechanism of EVO against the viability of human ovarian cancer cells is still unclear.

PURPOSE

A number of studies showed that chemotherapeutic benefits may result from targeting the endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress signaling pathway. The objective of the study is to investigate the mechanism by which ER stress protein PERK plays in EVO-induced apoptosis of human ovarian cancer cells.

METHODS

Cell death analysis was performed by MTT assay, DNA fragmentation assay, and Giemsa staining. DiOC6 staining was used for mitochondrial membrane potential measurement. Protein levels were analyzed by Western blotting. Pharmacological studies using MAPK inhibitors and PERK inhibitor GSK2606414 were involved.

RESULTS

The viability of human ovarian cancer cells A2780, A2780CP, ES-2, and SKOV-3 was inhibited by EVO at various concentrations in accordance with increases in the percentage of apoptotic cells, DNA ladders, and cleavage of caspase 3 and poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Decreased viability of cells was reversed by adding caspase inhibitors VAD and DEVD in SKOV-3 and A2780CP cells, and incubation of cells with JNK inhibitor SP600125 (SP) and JNKI, but not other MAPK and AKT inhibitors including PD98059, SB203580, significantly prevented the apoptosis elicited by EVO in human ovarian cancer cells. Furthermore, increased expression of phospho-eIF2α (peIF2α) and phospho-PERK (pPERK) proteins was detected in EVO-treated human ovarian cancer cells, and that was inhibited by adding JNK inhibitors SP600125 and JNKI. Application of a PERK inhibitor GSK2606414 showed a significant protection of human ovarian cancer cells A2780 and A2780CP from EVO-induced apoptosis. EVO disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was also inhibited by adding JNK or PERK inhibitors. The structure-activity relationship study indicated that the alkyl group at position 14 in EVO is important for apoptosis induction via activation of JNK and PERK in human ovarian cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

Evidence supporting EVO induction of apoptosis via activation of JNK and PERK to disrupt MMP in human ovarian cancer cells is provided, and the alkyl at position 14 is a critical substitution for the apoptotic actions of EVO.

Evodiamine selectively targets cancer stem-like cells through the p53-p21-Rb pathway

In spite of the recent improvements, the resistance to chemotherapy/radiotherapy followed by relapse is the main hurdle for the successful treatment of breast cancer, a leading cause of death in women. A small population of breast cancer cells that have stem-like characteristics (cancer stem-like cells; CSLC) may contribute to this resistance and relapse. Here, we report on a component of a traditional Chinese medicine, evodiamine, which selectively targets CSLC of breast cancer cell lines MCF7 and MDAMB 231 at a concentration that does show a little or no cytotoxic effect on bulk cancer cells. While evodiamine caused the accumulation of bulk cancer cells at the G2/M phase, it did not hold CSLC in a specific cell cycle phase but instead, selectively killed CSLC. This was not due to the culture of CSLC in suspension or without FBS. A proteomic analysis and western blotting revealed that evodiamine changed the expression of cell cycle regulating molecules more efficiently in CSLC cells than in bulk cancer cells. Surprisingly, evodiamine selectively activated p53 and p21 and decreased inactive Rb, the master molecules in G1/S checkpoint. These data collectively suggest a novel mechanism involving CSLC-specific targeting by evodiamine and its possible use to the therapy of breast cancer.

Evodiamine Induces Apoptosis and Inhibits Migration of HCT-116 Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

Evodiamine (EVO) exhibits strong anti-cancer effects. However, the effect of EVO on the human colorectal cancer cell line HCT-116 has not been explored in detail, and its underlying molecular mechanisms remain unknown. In the present study, cell viability was assessed by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). Cell cycle and apoptosis were measured by flow cytometry, and morphological changes in the nucleus were examined by fluorescence microscopy and Hoechst staining. Cell motility was detected by Transwell assay. ELISA was used to assess the protein levels of autocrine motility factor (AMF) in the cell supernatant, and protein expression was determined by Western blotting. Our results showed that EVO inhibited the proliferation of HCT-116 cells, caused accumulation of cells in S and G2/M phases, and reduced the levels of the secreted form of AMF. The protein levels of tumor suppressor protein (p53), Bcl-2 Associated X protein (Bax), B cell CLL/lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), phosphorylated signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (p-STAT3) and matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP3) were altered in cells treated with EVO. Taken together, our results suggest that EVO modulates the activity of the p53 signaling pathway to induce apoptosis and downregulate MMP3 expression by inactivating the JAK2/STAT3 pathway through the downregulation of PGI to inhibit migration of HCT-116 human colorectal cancer cells.

Anti-proliferative activity and cell cycle arrest induced by evodiamine on paclitaxel-sensitive and -resistant human ovarian cancer cells

Chemo-resistance is the main factor for poor prognosis in human ovarian epithelial cancer. Active constituents derived from Chinese medicine with anti-cancer potential might circumvent this obstacle. In our present study, evodiamine (EVO) derived from Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth suppressed the proliferation of human epithelial ovarian cancer, A2780 and the related paclitaxel-resistant cell lines and did not cause cytotoxicity, as confirmed by the significant decline of clone formation and the representative alterations of CFDA-SE fluorescence. Meanwhile, EVO induced cell cycle arrest in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This disturbance might be mediated by the cooperation of Cyclin B1 and Cdc2, including the up-regulation of Cyclin B1, p27, and p21, and activation failure of Cdc2 and pRb. MAPK signaling pathway regulation also assisted in this process. Furthermore, chemo-sensitivity potential was enhanced as indicated in A2780/PTX^R cells by the down-regulation of MDR-1 expression, accompanied by MDR-1 function suppression. Taken together, we confirmed initially that EVO exerted an anti-proliferative effect on human epithelial ovarian cancer cells, A2780/WT and A2780/PTX^R, induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, and improved chemo-resistance. Overall, we found that EVO significantly suppressed malignant proliferation in human epithelial ovarian cancer, thus proving to be a potential anti-cancer agent in the future.

Scaffold Diversity Inspired by the Natural Product Evodiamine: Discovery of Highly Potent and Multitargeting Antitumor Agents

A critical question in natural product-based drug discovery is how to translate the product into drug-like molecules with optimal pharmacological properties. The generation of natural product-inspired scaffold diversity is an effective but challenging strategy to investigate the broader chemical space and identify promising drug leads. Extending our efforts to the natural product evodiamine, a diverse library containing 11 evodiamine-inspired novel scaffolds and their derivatives were designed and synthesized. Most of them showed good to excellent antitumor activity against various human cancer cell lines. In particular, 3-chloro-10-hydroxyl thio-evodiamine (66c) showed excellent in vitro and in vivo antitumor efficacy with good tolerability and low toxicity. Antitumor mechanism and target profiling studies indicate that compound 66c is the first-in-class triple topoisomerase I/topoisomerase II/tubulin inhibitor. Overall, this study provided an effective strategy for natural product-based drug discovery.

Pin1 Inhibitor Juglone Exerts Anti-Oncogenic Effects on LNCaP and DU145 Cells despite the Patterns of Gene Regulation by Pin1 Differing between These Cell Lines

Background

Prostate cancer initially develops in an androgen-dependent manner but, during its progression, transitions to being androgen-independent in the advanced stage. Pin1, one of the peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases, is reportedly overexpressed in prostate cancers and is considered to contribute to accelerated cell growth, which may be one of the major factors contributing to their androgen-independent growth. Thus, we investigated how Pin1 modulates the gene expressions in both androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate cancer cell lines using microarray analysis. In addition, the effects of Juglone, a commercially available Pin1 inhibitor were also examined.

Methods

Two prostate cancer cell-lines, LNCaP (androgen-dependent) and DU145 (androgen-independent), were treated with Pin1 siRNA and its effects on gene expressions were analyzed by microarray. Individual gene regulations induced by Pin1 siRNA or the Pin1 inhibitor Juglone were examined using RT-PCR. In addition, the effects of Juglone on the growth of LNCaP and DU145 transplanted into mice were investigated.

Results

Microarray analysis revealed that transcriptional factors regulated by Pin1 differed markedly between LNCaP and DU145 cells, the only exception being that Nrf was regulated in the same way by Pin1 siRNA in both cell lines. Despite this marked difference in gene regulations, Pin1 siRNA and Juglone exert a strong inhibitory effect on both the LNCaP and the DU145 cell line, suppressing in vitro cell proliferation as well as tumor enlargement when transplanted into mice.

Conclusions

Despite Pin1-regulated gene expressions differing between these two prostate cancer cell-lines, LNCaP (androgen-dependent) and DU145 (androgen-independent), Pin1 inhibition suppresses proliferation of both cell-lines. These findings suggest the potential effectiveness of Pin1 inhibitors as therapeutic agents for prostate cancers, regardless of their androgen sensitivity.

In Vitro Assessment of the Anticancer Potential of Evodiamine in Human Oral Cancer Cell Lines

Evodiamine, a bioactive alkaloid, has been regarded as having antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and anticancer properties. In the present study, we explored the effects of evodiamine on cell growth and apoptosis in human oral cancer cell lines. Our data revealed that evodiamine significantly inhibited the proliferation of human oral cancer cells and resulted in the cleavages of PARP (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase) and caspase-3, in addition to causing the typical characteristics of apoptosis. Evodiamine also increased Bax protein levels and caused translocation of Bax into mitochondria and Bax oligomerization. In addition, evodiamine decreased expression of myeloid cell leukemia (Mcl-1) at the transcriptional modification, and knockdown of Mcl-1 clearly resulted in an increase in expression of Bax and active Bax, resulting in induction of apoptosis. Evodiamine reduced expression of phosphorylated AKT, and LY294002 potentiated evodiamine-induced apoptosis by regulating Mcl-1 protein. Our results suggest that evodiamine induces apoptosis in human oral cancer cells through the AKT pathway. These findings provide a rationale for its clinical application in the treatment of oral cancer.

Apoptosis of human non-small-cell lung cancer A549 cells triggered by evodiamine through MTDH-dependent signaling pathway

Metadherin (MTDH), a novel oncoprotein, has been implicated in the carcinogenesis in various aspects of tumor malignancy. Overexpression of the MTDH promotes the survival and proliferation of lung cancer cells. Agent that can suppress MTDH activation would have potential to be developed for cancer therapeutics. In this study, we investigated the antitumor effect of evodiamine in human non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) A549 cell line and the inhibitory effect of evodiamine on MTDH pathway. 3-(4,5-Dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) staining assays demonstrated that evodiamine or MTDH short hairpin RNA (shRNA) significantly inhibited proliferation of A549 cells via induction of apoptosis. Besides, evodiamine or MTDH shRNA-induced activation of the caspase-3 in A549 cells under same conditions. In addition, Western blotting analysis showed that treatment of A549 cells with evodiamine or MTDH shRNA resulted in an increase of proapoptotic protein Bax expression but decreased the expression levels of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and MTDH, which altogether account for apoptotic cell death. Taken together, our results suggest that the evodiamine suppress the proliferation of lung cancer cells, at least, in part, via inhibition of MTDH expression and activation of apoptosis.

Inhibitory effects of evodiamine on human osteosarcoma cell proliferation and apoptosis

Osteosarcoma is a primary malignancy of bone, which is characterized by the proliferation of malignant mesenchymal cells, particularly in children and adolescents. Evodiamine is extracted from a variety of traditional Chinese medicines, which has been reported to induce apoptosis in certain tumors, including cervical, prostate and breast cancer, however, its effect on oestosarcoma cells remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of evodiamine on osteosarcoma cell proliferation and apoptosis, and explore the associated underlying molecular mechanism. A Cell Counting Kit 8 assay was performed to detect the effects of evodiamine on the proliferation of human osteosarcoma U2OS cells. Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide staining was performed to analyze the apoptotic rate of the cells. The effect of evodiamine on the protein expression levels of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), caspase-3 and survivin were detected by performing western blot analysis. Evodiamine inhibited the growth of human osteosarcoma U2OS cells by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing cell apoptosis. Western blotting demonstrated that evodiamine downregulated the expression of Bcl-2, caspase-3 and survivin, and upregulated the expression of Bax in human osteosarcoma cells. Evodiamine effectively inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells in a dose-dependent manner via downregulation of Bcl-2, caspase-3 and survivin protein expression levels and upregulation of Bax protein expression levels.

Anti-proliferative effects of evodiamine in human lung cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine, a compound isolated from the Evodia rutaecarpa Bentham (Rutaceae), is known to have a potential anti-proliferative activity in human cancer cells. However, the growth inhibitory activity against lung cancer cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms have been poorly determined. The present study was designed to examine the anti-proliferative effect of evodiamine in A549 human lung cancer cells.

METHODS

A549 cells were treated with the compounds from Evodia rutaecarpa, and the anti-proliferative activity was evaluated by the sulforhodamine B assay. The mechanisms of action for the growth inhibitory activity of evodiamine on A549 human lung cancer cells were evaluated using flow cytometry for cell cycle distribution, and Western blot for assessment of accumulation and phosphorylation of potential target proteins.

RESULTS

Evodiamine exhibited a potent anti-proliferative activity against A549 human lung cancer cells. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that evodiamine induced cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and apoptosis in the A549 cells. The cell cycle arrest was well correlated with the inhibition of cyclin B1, cyclin A, cdk2 and p-cdc2 (Tyr15) and increase of p-chk1 (Ser345) and p-chk2 (Thr68). Evodiamine also significantly increased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and decreased procaspase-3, suggesting evodiamine-induced apoptosis via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In addition, evodiamine inhibited the expression of p-ERK and ERK.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the anti-proliferative effect of evodiamine was associated in part with the induction of G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and down-regulation of ERK in human lung cancer cells.

Activation of JNK contributes to evodiamine-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest in human colorectal carcinoma cells: a structure-activity study of evodiamine

Evodiamine (EVO; 8,13,13b,14-tetrahydro-14-methylindolo[2′3′-3,4]pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-5-[7H]-one derived from the traditional herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa was reported to possess anticancer activity; however, the anticancer mechanism is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the anticancer effects of EVO on human colon COLO205 and HT-29 cells and their potential mechanisms. MTT and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays showed that the viability of COLOL205 and HT-29 cells was inhibited by EVO at various concentrations in accordance with increases in the percentage of apoptotic cells and cleavage of caspase-3 and poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential by EVO was accompanied by increased Bax, caspase-9 protein cleavage, and cytochrome (Cyt) c protein translocation in COLO205 and HT-29 cells. Application of the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) inhibited H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis, but did not affect EVO-induced apoptosis of COLO205 or HT-29 cells. Significant increases in the G₂/M ratio and cyclinB1/cdc25c protein expression by EVO were respectively identified in colon carcinoma cells via a flow cytometric analysis and Western blotting. Induction of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) protein phosphorylation was detected in EVO-treated cells, and the JNK inhibitor, SP600125, but not the ERK inhibitor, U0126, inhibited EVO-induced phosphorylated JNK protein expression, apoptosis, and G₂/M arrest of colon carcinoma cells. Data of the structure-activity analysis showed that EVO-related chemicals containing an alkyl group at position 14 were able to induce apoptosis, G₂/M arrest associated with increased DNA ladder formation, cleavage of caspase-3 and PARP, and elevated cycB1 and cdc25c protein expressions in COLO205 and HT-29 cells. Evidence supporting JNK activation leading to EVO-induced apoptosis and G₂/M arrest in colon carcinoma cells is provided, and alkylation at position 14 of EVO is a critical substitution for treatment of colonic cancer.