IL-10 expression in macrophages from neonates born from obese mothers is suppressed by IL-4 and LPS/INFγ

Developmental Programming of the Fetal Immune System by Maternal Western-Style Diet: Mechanisms and Implications for Disease Pathways in the Offspring

Maternal obesity and over/undernutrition can have a long-lasting impact on offspring health during critical periods in the first 1000 days of life. Children born to mothers with obesity have reduced immune responses to stimuli which increase susceptibility to infections. Recently, maternal western-style diets (WSDs), high in fat and simple sugars, have been associated with skewing neonatal immune cell development, and recent evidence suggests that dysregulation of innate immunity in early life has long-term consequences on metabolic diseases and behavioral disorders in later life. Several factors contribute to abnormal innate immune tolerance or trained immunity, including changes in gut microbiota, metabolites, and epigenetic modifications. Critical knowledge gaps remain regarding the mechanisms whereby these factors impact fetal and postnatal immune cell development, especially in precursor stem cells in bone marrow and fetal liver. Components of the maternal microbiota that are transferred from mothers consuming a WSD to their offspring are understudied and identifying cause and effect on neonatal innate and adaptive immune development needs to be refined. Tools including single-cell RNA-sequencing, epigenetic analysis, and spatial location of specific immune cells in liver and bone marrow are critical for understanding immune system programming. Considering the vital role immune function plays in offspring health, it will be important to understand how maternal diets can control developmental programming of innate and adaptive immunity.

Impact of Transgenerational Nutrition on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Development: Interplay between Gut Microbiota, Epigenetics and Immunity

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has emerged as the most prevalent pediatric liver disorder, primarily attributed to dietary shifts in recent years. NAFLD is characterized by the accumulation of lipid species in hepatocytes, leading to liver inflammation that can progress to steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Risk factors contributing to NAFLD encompass genetic variations and metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, and insulin resistance. Moreover, transgenerational influences, resulting in an imbalance of gut microbial composition, epigenetic modifications, and dysregulated hepatic immune responses in offspring, play a pivotal role in pediatric NAFLD development. Maternal nutrition shapes the profile of microbiota-derived metabolites in offspring, exerting significant influence on immune system regulation and the development of metabolic syndrome in offspring. In this review, we summarize recent evidence elucidating the intricate interplay between gut microbiota, epigenetics, and immunity in fetuses exposed to maternal nutrition, and its impact on the onset of NAFLD in offspring. Furthermore, potential therapeutic strategies targeting this network are also discussed.

Epigenetic regulation of inflammation in insulin resistance

Epigenetics focuses on the study of changes in gene expression based on modifications that do not interfere with the DNA sequence, such as DNA methylation, post-translational histone modification, and non-coding RNA. Epigenetic changes regulate the expression of many genes, including inflammatory ones. Chronic inflammation is often accompanied by insulin resistance (IR), which is characteristic of inter alia type 2 diabetes. Recently, it has been reported that altered epigenetic signature in the promoter regions of inflammatory genes may contribute to the development of IR. Therefore, the aim of this review is to present the current state of knowledge regarding the epigenetic regulation of inflammation in IR. It includes original papers published from 2014 to 2022. It appears that hypomethylation of the SOCS3 gene increases the risk of IR, while the alteration of H3K4me in the NF-kB promoter promotes changes in inflammatory phenotype. Finally, in hyperglycemic states associated with IR, altered levels of H3K4/K9m3 and H3K9/K14ac result in increased expression of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6. In addition, numerous miRNAs have been identified that may become a target in the fight against diseases related to inflammation and IR. Future studies should examine the epigenetic modifications of IR inflammatory markers associated with environmental factors.

Maternal obesity induced metabolic disorders in offspring and myeloid reprogramming by epigenetic regulation

Maternal obesity and gestational diabetes are associated with childhood obesity and increased cardiovascular risk. In this review, we will discuss and summarize extensive clinical and experimental studies that metabolically imbalanced environment exposure in early life plays a critical role in influencing later susceptibility to chronic inflammatory diseases and metabolic syndrome. The effect of maternal obesity and metabolic disorders, including gestational diabetes cause Large-for-gestational-age (LGA) children to link future development of adverse health issues such as obesity, atherosclerosis, hypertension, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by immune reprogramming to adverse micro-environment. This review also addresses intrauterine environment-driven myeloid reprogramming by epigenetic regulations and the epigenetic markers as an underlying mechanism. This will facilitate future investigations regarding maternal-to-fetal immune regulation and the epigenetic mechanisms of obesity and cardiovascular diseases.

Maternal obesity and high leptin levels prime pro-inflammatory pathways in human cord blood leukocytes

INTRODUCTION

Maternal obesity alters the immune function in the offspring. We hypothesize that maternal obesity and pro-inflammatory pathways induce leptin-related genes in neonatal monocytes, whereby high leptin levels enhance their inflammatory response.

METHODS

Transcriptional profiles of cord blood leukocytes (CBL) in basal and pro-inflammatory conditions were studied to determine differentially expressed genes (DEG). The DNA methylation profile of CB monocytes (CBM) of neonates born to control BMI mothers and women with obesity was assayed to identify differentially methylated probes (DMP). CBM-derived macrophages were cultured with or without leptin (10-100 ng/ml) and then stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 ng/ml) and interferon-gamma (20 ng/ml) to assess the induction of TNF-α and IL-10 transcripts.

RESULTS

CBL from pregnancies with obesity (CBL-Ob) showed 12,183 DEG, affecting 49 out of 78 from the leptin pathway. Control CBM exposed to LPS showed 45 leptin-related DEG, an effect prevented by the co-exposure to LPS and IL-10. Conversely, CBM-Ob showed 5279 DMP enriched in insulin- and leptin-related genes, and Lasso regression of leptin-related DMP showed high predictive value for plasma leptin levels (r2 = 0.9897) and maternal BMI categories (AUC = 1). Chronic exposure to leptin increased TNF-α and decreased IL-10 levels in control BMI samples but not in Ob-CBM. Enhanced TNF-α induction after proinflammatory stimulation was observed in leptin-treated control BMI samples.

DISCUSSION

Obesity in pregnancy is associated with a distinctive expression and DNA methylation profile of leptin-related genes in cord blood monocytes, meanwhile, leptin enhances the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines upon stimulation with M1-skewing agents.

The methylation profile of IL4, IL5, IL10, IFNG and FOXP3 associated with environmental exposures differed between Polish infants with the food allergy and/or atopic dermatitis and without the disease

Objectives

Epigenetic dynamics has been indicated to play a role in allergy development. The environmental stimuli have been shown to influence the methylation processes. This study investigated the differences in CpGs methylation rate of immune-attached genes between healthy and allergic infants. The research was aimed at finding evidence for the impact of environmental factors on methylation-based regulation of immunological processes in early childhood.

Methods

The analysis of methylation level of CpGs in the IL4, IL5, IL10, IFNG and FOXP3 genes was performed using high resolution melt real time PCR technology. DNA was isolated from whole blood of Polish healthy and allergic infants, with food allergy and/or atopic dermatitis, aged under six months.

Results

The significantly lower methylation level of FOXP3 among allergic infants compared to healthy ones was reported. Additional differences in methylation rates were found, when combining with environmental factors. In different studied groups, negative correlations between age and the IL10 and FOXP3 methylation were detected, and positive - in the case of IL4. Among infants with different allergy symptoms, the decrease in methylation level of IFNG, IL10, IL4 and FOXP3 associated with passive smoke exposure was observed. Complications during pregnancy were linked to different pattern of the IFNG, IL5, IL4 and IL10 methylation depending on allergy status. The IFNG and IL5 methylation rates were higher among exclusively breastfed infants with atopic dermatitis compared to the non-breastfed. A decrease in the IFNG methylation was noted among allergic patients fed exclusively with milk formula. In different study groups, a negative correlation between IFNG, IL5 methylation and maternal BMI or IL5 methylation and weight was noted. Some positive correlations between methylation rate of IL10 and child's weight were found. A higher methylation of IL4 was positively correlated with the number of family members with allergy.

Conclusion

The FOXP3 methylation in allergic infants was lower than in the healthy ones. The methylation profile of IL4, IL5, IL10, IFNG and FOXP3 associated with environmental exposures differed between the studied groups. The results offer insights into epigenetic regulation of immunological response in early childhood.

Maternal obesity is associated with a higher number of regulatory-T-cells in newborns without affecting suppression

BACKGROUND

Maternal obesity (MO) is associated with a higher risk of immune-mediated diseases in the offspring and higher leptin levels in cord blood (CB). This study evaluates the number and function of lymphocyte subtypes in CB related to MO and its relationship with leptin concentration and leptin receptor expression.

METHODS

Pregnant women with (n = 32) or without obesity (n = 41) were enrolled at delivery. Cord blood mononuclear cells were separated with Ficoll-Hypaque. B and CD4+, regulatory and effector T cells were quantified by Flow Cytometry. Cord blood leptin concentration was measured by ELISA, and the leptin receptor (sLepR) on Treg cells was determined by Flow Cytometry.

RESULTS

MO was associated with higher numbers of CD4+, Treg and effector T cells in the CB of their offspring, without differences in the suppressive function of Tregs. Female offspring had a higher number of these cells and a higher cord leptin concentration. Tregs expressed higher levels of sLepR than effector T cells, without differences between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

MO is associated with changes in the newborn's immune profile, more evident in female newborns with higher leptin concentrations. More studies are needed to identify the mechanisms by which the high levels of cord leptin in the newborn of women with obesity could affect the offspring's immune system.

Maternal obesity blunts antimicrobial responses in fetal monocytes

Maternal pre-pregnancy (pregravid) obesity is associated with adverse outcomes for both mother and offspring. Amongst the complications for the offspring is increased susceptibility and severity of neonatal infections necessitating admission to the intensive care unit, notably bacterial sepsis and enterocolitis. Previous studies have reported aberrant responses to LPS and polyclonal stimulation by umbilical cord blood monocytes that were mediated by alterations in the epigenome. In this study, we show that pregravid obesity dysregulates umbilical cord blood monocyte responses to bacterial and viral pathogens. Specifically, interferon-stimulated gene expression and inflammatory responses to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and E. coli were significantly dampened, respectively . Although upstream signaling events were comparable, translocation of the key transcription factor NF-κB and chromatin accessibility at pro-inflammatory gene promoters following TLR stimulation was significantly attenuated. Using a rhesus macaque model of western style diet-induced obesity, we further demonstrate that this defect is detected in fetal peripheral monocytes and tissue-resident macrophages during gestation. Collectively, these data indicate that maternal obesity alters metabolic, signaling, and epigenetic profiles of fetal monocytes leading to a state of immune paralysis during late gestation and at birth.

A Higher Healthy Eating Index Is Associated with Decreased Markers of Inflammation and Lower Odds for Being Overweight/Obese Based on a Case-Control Study

Obesity is a health risk characterized by chronic inflammation, and food choices are strongly associated with its etiology. Our objective was to investigate the association between dietary patterns and the healthy eating index (HEI) with the odds of overweight/obesity and related inflammatory markers. Within a population-based case-control study, we collected data and samples from 793 normal-weight and 812 overweight/obese Iranian people (based on either body mass index (BMI) or body surface area (BSA)). Dietary intake and HEI scores were obtained via a validated 124-item food frequency questionnaire. Anthropometric and socioeconomic parameters, as well as blood inflammatory markers, were measured. Participants with higher HEI scores had higher serum high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) and significantly lower energy intake. Water consumption in the overweight/obese group was significantly lower than in the control group. In the final models using partial correlation and controlling for multiple confounders, there was a significant inverse correlation between HEI and interleukin-4 (IL-4, R = -0.063), IL-1β (R = -0.054), and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP, R = -0.069). Based on multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for multiple confounders, there was a significant association between HEI as a continuous variable (OR = 0.993, 95% CI: 0.988-0.999) and categorical variable (OR = 0.801, 95% CI: 0.658-0.977) and odds of overweight/obesity across BMI groups. The dietary patterns in the case and control groups however were similar, and we failed to find a significant association between HEI and odds of overweight/obesity based on BSA. Adherence to healthy eating recommendations may be a prudent recommendation to prevent overweight/obesity and keeping inflammatory indicators low.

Metabolic impact of adipose tissue macrophages in the early postnatal life

Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) play key roles in metabolic inflammation, insulin resistance, adipose tissue fibrosis, and immune disorders associated with obesity. Research on ATM biology has mostly been conducted in the setting of adult obesity, since adipocyte hypertrophy is associated with a significant increase in ATM number. Signals that control ATM activation toward a proinflammatory or a proresolving phenotype also determine the developmental program and lipid metabolism of adipocytes after birth. ATMs are present at birth and actively participate in the synthesis of mediators, which induce lipolysis, mitobiogenesis, and mitochondrial uncoupling in adipocytes. ATMs in the newborn and the infant promote a lipolytic and fatty acid oxidizing adipocyte phenotype, which is essential to support the lipid-fueled metabolism, to maintain nonshivering thermogenesis and counteract an excessive adipose tissue expansion. Since adipose tissue metabolism in the early postnatal life determines obesity status in adulthood, early-life ATM functions may have a life-long impact.

Maternal obesity and the impact of associated early-life inflammation on long-term health of offspring

The prevalence of obesity is increasingly common in the United States, with ~25% of women of reproductive age being overweight or obese. Metaflammation, a chronic low grade inflammatory state caused by altered metabolism, is often present in pregnancies complicated by obesity. As a result, the fetuses of mothers who are obese are exposed to an in-utero environment that has altered nutrients and cytokines. Notably, both human and preclinical studies have shown that children born to mothers with obesity have higher risks of developing chronic illnesses affecting various organ systems. In this review, the authors sought to present the role of cytokines and inflammation during healthy pregnancy and determine how maternal obesity changes the inflammatory landscape of the mother, leading to fetal reprogramming. Next, the negative long-term impact on offspring’s health in numerous disease contexts, including offspring’s risk of developing neuropsychiatric disorders (autism, attention deficit and hyperactive disorder), metabolic diseases (obesity, type 2 diabetes), atopy, and malignancies will be discussed along with the potential of altered immune/inflammatory status in offspring as a contributor of these diseases. Finally, the authors will list critical knowledge gaps in the field of developmental programming of health and diseases in the context of offspring of mothers with obesity, particularly the understudied role of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

Epigenetic regulation of pediatric and neonatal immune responses

Epigenetic regulation of transcription is a collective term that refers to mechanisms known to regulate gene transcription without changing the underlying DNA sequence. These mechanisms include DNA methylation and histone tail modifications which influence chromatin accessibility, and microRNAs that act through post-transcriptional gene silencing. Epigenetics is known to regulate a variety of biological processes, and the role of epigtenetics in immunity and immune-mediated diseases is becoming increasingly recognized. While DNA methylation is the most widely studied, each of these systems play an important role in the development and maintenance of appropriate immune responses. There is clear evidence that epigenetic mechanisms contribute to developmental stage-specific immune responses in a cell-specific manner. There is also mounting evidence that prenatal exposures alter epigenetic profiles and subsequent immune function in exposed offspring. Early life exposures that are associated with poor long-term health outcomes also appear to impact immune specific epigenetic patterning. Finally, each of these epigenetic mechanisms contribute to the pathogenesis of a wide variety of diseases that manifest during childhood. This review will discuss each of these areas in detail. IMPACT: Epigenetics, including DNA methylation, histone tail modifications, and microRNA expression, dictate immune cell phenotypes. Epigenetics influence immune development and subsequent immune health. Prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal exposures alter immune cell epigenetic profiles and subsequent immune function. Numerous pediatric-onset diseases have an epigenetic component. Several successful strategies for childhood diseases target epigenetic mechanisms.

Associations between obesity-related gene expression in maternal and cord blood and newborn adiposity: findings from the Araraquara Cohort study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Genes involved in the regulation of metabolism, adipose tissue deposition, inflammation, and the appetite-satiety axis may play an important role in fetal development, and possibly induce permanent metabolic changes and fat accumulation. In this study we investigated: (1) obesity-related gene expression in maternal and cord blood of overweight/obese and normal-weight pregnant women; (2) associations between obesity-related gene expression in maternal and cord blood; and (3) associations of gene expression in each of maternal and cord blood with newborn adiposity.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Twenty-five overweight/obese and 32 normal-weight pregnant women were selected from the Araraquara Cohort Study according to their pre-pregnancy BMI. Maternal and cord blood gene expression of LEPR, STAT3, PPARG, TLR4, IL-6, IL-10, FTO, MC4R, TNF-α, and NFκB were investigated by relative real-time PCR quantification. The body composition of the newborns was assessed by air displacement plethysmography. Associations between maternal and cord blood gene expression and markers of newborn adiposity (weight, BMI, and fat mass%) were explored by linear regression models controlling for maternal age, pre-pregnancy BMI, maternal gestational weight gain, gestational age, and newborn sex.

RESULTS

There was higher TLR4, NFκB, and TNF-a expression, and lower IL-6 expression, in overweight/obese pregnant women and their respective newborns compared with normal-weight women and their newborns (p < 0.001). Maternal PPARG gene expression was associated with both weight and fat mass % of the newborns, and cord blood IL-10 expression was associated with BMI and fat mass %, controlling for confounders.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the relationship of maternal and cord blood gene expression with adiposity markers of the newborn. Our results provide evidence for the contribution of maternal and cord blood gene expression-particularly maternal PPARG and TLR4 expression, and cord blood IL-10 expression-to newborn weight, BMI, and fat mass %.

Cord blood levels of interleukin-10 decrease in neonates with increased birth weight: novel implications of the cytokine network in early obesity

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) are associated with body weight alterations in children, adolescents, and adults. However, little is known regarding the role of IL-10 and IFN-gamma in birth weight of neonates. One hundred eighty-two infants were enrolled and divided in groups of normal birth weight (< 95th percentile) or increased birth weight (> 95th percentile) for gestational age. IL-10 and IFN-gamma levels were measured in umbilical cord tissue and blood of newborns by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The average value of birth weight in infants below and above the 95th percentile was 3.03±0.39 and 3.58±0.37 kg, respectively, and was independent of the mother's pre-gestational body mass index. The Student t test revealed that neonates with birth weights > 95th percentile show a significant 30% decrease in cord blood values of IL-10 as compared to infants with birth weights < 95th percentile (P<0.0001), with no significant changes in IFN-gamma levels (P=0.1661). Cord blood IL-10 was not of maternal origin but produced by umbilical cord tissue that showed less IL-10 expression in neonates with birth weights > 95th percentile than in infants with birth weights < 95th percentile (P=0.0252). Cord blood levels of IL-10 exhibited significant inverse correlations with birth weight (r = - 0.658, P=0.002) and INF-gamma (r = - 0.502, P=0.005).Conclusion: In conclusion, this work demonstrates for the first time that cord blood IL-10 decreases as birth weight increases in infants born at term and might help to improve early recognition of newborns at higher risk of developing obesity in childhood or adulthood. What is Known: • Reduction in interleukin-10 levels has been associated with obesity in adolescents and adults but not newborns. • The number of neonates with excess birth weight has alarmingly increased in the last 30 years. What is New: • We demonstrate that umbilical cord blood levels of interleukin-10 clearly decrease as birth weight increases. • Interleukin-10 and interferon-gamma integrate a cytokine network that might play a role in obesity in infants.

Maternal obesity is associated with a sex-specific epigenetic programming in human neonatal monocytes

Aim: To determine changes in global DNA methylation in monocytes from neonates of women with obesity, as markers of an immune programming resulting from maternal obesity. Materials & methods: Cord blood monocytes were obtained from neonates born to women with obesity and normal weight, genome-wide differentially methylated CpGs were determined using an Infinium MethylationEPIC-BeadChip (850K). Results: No clustering of samples according to maternal BMI was observed, but sex-specific analysis revealed 71,728 differentially methylated CpGs in female neonates from women with obesity (p < 0.01). DAVID analysis showed increased methylation levels within genes involved in the innate immune response and inflammation. Conclusion: Maternal obesity induces, in a sex-specific manner, an epigenetic programming of monocytes that could contribute to disease later in life. Clinical trial registry: This study is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02903134.

Epigenetic signatures underlying inflammation: an interplay of nutrition, physical activity, metabolic diseases, and environmental factors for personalized nutrition

Aim and objective

Emerging translational evidence suggests that epigenetic alterations (DNA methylation, miRNA expression, and histone modifications) occur after external stimuli and may contribute to exacerbated inflammation and the risk of suffering several diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurological disorders. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the harmful effects of high-fat/high-sugar diets, micronutrient deficiencies (folate, manganese, and carotenoids), obesity and associated complications, bacterial/viral infections, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, sleep deprivation, chronic stress, air pollution, and chemical exposure on inflammation through epigenetic mechanisms. Additionally, the epigenetic phenomena underlying the anti-inflammatory potential of caloric restriction, n-3 PUFA, Mediterranean diet, vitamin D, zinc, polyphenols (i.e., resveratrol, gallic acid, epicatechin, luteolin, curcumin), and the role of systematic exercise are discussed.

Methods

Original and review articles encompassing epigenetics and inflammation were screened from major databases (including PubMed, Medline, Science Direct, Scopus, etc.) and analyzed for the writing of the review paper.

Conclusion

Although caution should be exercised, research on epigenetic mechanisms is contributing to understand pathological processes involving inflammatory responses, the prediction of disease risk based on the epigenotype, as well as the putative design of therapeutic interventions targeting the epigenome.

Adipose Tissue Development and Expansion from the Womb to Adolescence: An Overview

Prevalence rates of pediatric obesity continue to rise worldwide. Adipose tissue (AT) development and expansion initiate in the fetus and extend throughout the lifespan. This paper presents an overview of the AT developmental trajectories from the intrauterine period to adolescence; factors determining adiposity expansion are also discussed. The greatest fetal increases in AT were observed in the third pregnancy trimester, with growing evidence suggesting that maternal health and nutrition, toxin exposure, and genetic defects impact AT development. From birth up to six months, healthy term newborns experience steep increases in AT; but a subsequent reduction in AT is observed during infancy. Important determinants of AT in infancy identified in this review included feeding practices and factors shaping the gut microbiome. Low AT accrual rates are maintained up to puberty onset, at which time, the pattern of adiposity expansion becomes sex dependent. As girls experience rapid increases and boys experience decreases in AT, sexual dimorphism in hormone secretion can be considered the main contributor for changes. Eating patterns/behaviors and interactions between dietary components, gut microbiome, and immune cells also influence AT expansion. Despite the plasticity of this tissue, substantial evidence supports that adiposity at birth and infancy highly influences its levels across subsequent life stages. Thus, a unique window of opportunity for the prevention and/or slowing down of the predisposition toward obesity, exists from pregnancy through childhood.

Inflammation and Cognitive Function in Overweight and Obese Chinese Individuals

BACKGROUND

The role(s) of inflammation in obesity-associated cognitive decline in overweight or obese populations is not completely understood.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the profile of plasma inflammatory cytokines in overweight and obese Chinese individuals and to assess the relationship between inflammation and cognitive function.

METHODS

We evaluated the cognitive domains of 282 Chinese adults, aged 35 to 64 years, using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). The participants were classified into three groups according to their body mass index. Inflammatory cytokines were determined by immune turbidimetric analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Data were analyzed using covariance and partial correlation analyses after adjusting for gender, age, education level, hypertension, and hyperlipemia.

RESULTS

The total MoCA scores of the overweight and obese groups were significantly lower than that of the control group. The obese group displayed a significantly higher level of tumor necrosis factor-α than the overweight and control groups and a significantly higher level of transforming growth factor-β than the control group. The overweight group displayed a significantly higher interleukin-4 level than the control and obese groups. After adjusting for confounding factors, however, we found no significant correlation between the level of plasma inflammatory cytokines and MMSE or MoCA total score.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to normal-weight Chinese participants, overweight and obese Chinese participants revealed significant differences in their inflammatory cytokines profile; however, the inflammatory cytokine levels did not correlate with the significantly lower cognitive scores observed in the overweight and obese groups.

Intergenerational Transmission of Diet-Induced Obesity, Metabolic Imbalance, and Osteoarthritis in Mice

OBJECTIVE

Obesity and osteoarthritis (OA) are 2 major public health issues affecting millions of people worldwide. Whereas parental obesity affects the predisposition to diseases such as cancer or diabetes in children, transgenerational influences on musculoskeletal conditions such as OA are poorly understood. This study was undertaken to assess the intergenerational effects of a parental/grandparental high-fat diet on the metabolic and skeletal phenotype, systemic inflammation, and predisposition to OA in 2 generations of offspring in mice.

METHODS

Metabolic phenotype and predisposition to OA were investigated in the first and second (F1 and F2) generations of offspring (n = 10-16 mice per sex per diet) bred from mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or a low-fat control diet. OA was induced by destabilizing the medial meniscus. OA, synovitis, and adipose tissue inflammation were determined histologically, while bone changes were measured using micro-computed tomography. Serum and synovial cytokines were measured by multiplex assay.

RESULTS

Parental high-fat feeding showed an intergenerational effect, with inheritance of increased weight gain (up to 19% in the F1 generation and 9% in F2), metabolic imbalance, and injury-induced OA in at least 2 generations of mice, despite the fact that the offspring were fed the low-fat diet. Strikingly, both F1 and F2 female mice showed an increased predisposition to injury-induced OA (48% higher predisposition in F1 and 19% in F2 female mice fed the HFD) and developed bone microarchitectural changes that were attributable to parental and grandparental high-fat feeding.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study reveal a detrimental effect of parental HFD and obesity on the musculoskeletal integrity of 2 generations of offspring, indicating the importance of further investigation of these effects. An improved understanding of the mechanisms involved in the transmissibility of diet-induced changes through multiple generations may help in the development of future therapies that would target the effects of obesity on OA and related conditions.

Adipokines underlie the early origins of obesity and associated metabolic comorbidities in the offspring of women with pregestational obesity

Maternal pregestational obesity is a well-known risk factor for offspring obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms by which maternal obesity can induce alterations in fetal and later neonatal metabolism are not fully elucidated due to its complexity and multifactorial causes. Two adipokines, leptin and adiponectin, are involved in fetal and postnatal growth trajectories, and both are altered in women with pregestational obesity. The placenta synthesizes leptin, which goes mainly to the maternal circulation and in lesser amount to the developing fetus. Maternal pregestational obesity and hyperleptinemia are associated with placental dysfunction and changes in nutrient transporters which directly affect fetal growth and development. By the other side, the embryo can produce its own leptin from early in development, which is associated to fetal weight and adiposity. Adiponectin, an insulin-sensitizing adipokine, is downregulated in maternal obesity. High molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin is the most abundant form and with most biological actions. In maternal obesity lower total and HMW adiponectin levels have been described in the mother, paralleled with high levels in the umbilical cord. Several studies have found that cord blood adiponectin levels are related with postnatal growth trajectories, and it has been suggested that low adiponectin levels in women with pregestational obesity enhance placental insulin sensitivity and activation of placental amino acid transport systems, supporting fetal overgrowth. The possible mechanisms by which maternal pregestational obesity, focusing in the actions of leptin and adiponectin, affects the fetal development and postnatal growth trajectories in their offspring are discussed.

Impact of pregravid obesity on maternal and fetal immunity: Fertile grounds for reprogramming

Maternal pregravid obesity results in several adverse health outcomes during pregnancy, including increased risk of gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, placental abruption, and complications at delivery. Additionally, pregravid obesity and in utero exposure to high fat diet have been shown to have detrimental effects on fetal programming, predisposing the offspring to adverse cardiometabolic, endocrine, and neurodevelopmental outcomes. More recently, a deeper appreciation for the modulation of offspring immunity and infectious disease-related outcomes by maternal pregravid obesity has emerged. This review will describe currently available animal models for studying the impact of maternal pregravid obesity on fetal immunity and review the data from clinical and animal model studies. We also examine the burden of pregravid obesity on the maternal-fetal interface and the link between placental and systemic inflammation. Finally, we discuss future studies needed to identify key mechanistic underpinnings that link maternal inflammatory changes and fetal cellular reprogramming events.

LPS-induces IL-6 and IL-8 gene expression in bovine endometrial cells "through DNA methylation"

Uterine infection in dairy cows causes great economic loss. In bovine endometrial cells, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated increase in interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 8 (IL-8) mRNA is crucial for the inflammatory response; however, the regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we investigated the role of DNA methylation in IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression following LPS-induction in bovine endometrial cells. IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression was evaluated under DNA methylation inhibition using 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytodine (5Aza) following LPS stimulation. Expression of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B), methyl CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) and DNA methylation at IL-6 and IL-8 regions, were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP) following 24 h of LPS treatment. Inhibition of DNA methylation significantly enhanced LPS-induced IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression. LPS increased IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression, and decreased methylation levels of specific CpG sites at the IL-6 promoter (at -366 and -660) and the IL-8 promoter (at -120 and -48) after 24 h. Furthermore, LPS treatment for 24 h significantly increased DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B, and MeCP2 mRNA expression. Our results indicate that treating bovine endometrial cells with LPS induces the expression of IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA regulated by IL-6 and IL-8 promoter methylation.