NAP counteracts hyperglycemia/hypoxia induced retinal pigment epithelial barrier breakdown through modulation of HIFs and VEGF expression

SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 accelerates diabetic macular edema progression by WNT inhibitory factor 1

BACKGROUND

Diabetic macular edema (DME) is the most common cause of vision loss in people with diabetes. Tight junction disruption of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells has been reported to induce DME development. SMAD-specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (SMURF) 1 was associated with the tight junctions of cells. However, the mechanism of SMURF1 in the DME process remains unclear.

AIM

To investigate the role of SMURF1 in RPE cell tight junction during DME.

METHODS

ARPE-19 cells treated with high glucose (HG) and desferrioxamine mesylate (DFX) for establishment of the DME cell model. DME mice models were constructed by streptozotocin induction. The trans-epithelial electrical resistance and permeability of RPE cells were analyzed. The expressions of tight junction-related and autophagy-related proteins were determined. The interaction between insulin like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 2 (IGF2BP2) and SMURF1 mRNA was verified by RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP). SMURF1 N6-methyladenosine (m6A) level was detected by methylated RIP.

RESULTS

SMURF1 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were upregulated in DME. SMURF1 knockdown reduced HG/DFX-induced autophagy, which protected RPE cell tight junctions and ameliorated retinal damage in DME mice. SMURF1 activated the Wnt/β-catenin-VEGF signaling pathway by promoting WNT inhibitory factor (WIF) 1 ubiquitination and degradation. IGF2BP2 upregulated SMURF1 expression in an m6A modification-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

M6A-modified SMURF1 promoted WIF1 ubiquitination and degradation, which activated autophagy to inhibit RPE cell tight junctions, ultimately promoting DME progression.

Targeting the PINK1/Parkin pathway: A new perspective in the prevention and therapy of diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a microvascular complication of diabetes characterized by neurovascular impairment of the retina. The dysregulation of the mitophagy process occurs before apoptotic cell death and the appearance of vascular damage. In particular, mitochondrial alterations happen during DR development, supporting the hypothesis that mitophagy is negatively correlated to disease progression. This process is mainly regulated by the PTEN-induced putative kinase protein 1 (PINK1)/Parkin pathway whose activation promotes mitophagy. In this review, we will summarize the evidence reported in the literature demonstrating the involvement of the PINK1/Parkin pathway in diabetic retinopathy-induced retinal degeneration.

Qi-Ju-Di-Huang-Pill delays the progression of diabetic retinopathy

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Qi-Ju-Di-Huang-Pill (QJDH pill) is a Chinese decoction. Although it is commonly used to treat eye conditions, such as diabetic retinopathy (DR), its exact mechanism of action is unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the specific mechanism by which QJDH pill slows the progression of diabetic retinopathy (DR) based on animal and cellular experiments.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The major components of QJDH pill were characterized by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLCMS/MS). C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into five groups as follows: normal group (control group), model group (STZ group), low-dosage QJDH pill group (QJDH-L group), medium-dosage QJDH pill group (QJDH-M group) and high-dosage QJDH pill group (QJDH-H group). Changes in water intake, urination, food intake, and body mass were monitored weekly, while changes in blood glucose were monitored monthly. Fluorescein fundus angiography (FFA), optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), and optical coherence tomography (OCT) were utilized to analyze the changes in fundus imaging indications. Hematoxylin & eosin (H&E) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were employed to examine histopathologic and ultrastructural changes in retina. The levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-17 (IL-17), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in peripheral blood were detected using Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The mouse retina apoptotic cells were labeled with green fluorescence via terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (Tunel). The protein levels of Bcl-2-Associated X (Bax), B cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), Caspase-3, PI3K, phosphorylated PI3K (p-PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT) and phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT) were quantified by Western blot (WB). The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells were cultured and classified into five groups as follows: normal glucose group (NG group), high glucose group (HG group), high glucose + QJDH pill group (HG + QJDH group), high glucose + inhibitor group (HG + LY294002 group), and high glucose + inhibitor + QJDH pill group (HG + LY294002 + QJDH group). Cell viability and apoptosis were detected via Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) and then analyzed by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

In vivo experiments revealed that the QJDH pill effectively reduced blood glucose, symptoms of increased water intake, elevated urination, increased food intake and decreased body mass in DR mice. QJDH pill also slowed the development of a series of fundus imaging signs, such as retinal microangiomas, tortuous dilatation of blood vessels, decreased vascular density, and thinning of retinal thickness, downregulated IL-6, IL-17, TNF-α, and VEGF levels in peripheral blood, and inhibited retinal cell apoptosis by activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Moreover, in vitro experiments showed that high glucose environment inhibited RPE cell viability and activated RPE cell apoptosis pathway. In contrast, lyophilized powder of QJDH pill increased RPE cell viability, protected RPE cells from high glucose-induced damage, and decreased apoptosis of RPE cells by activating the pi3k pathway.

CONCLUSION

QJDH pill induces hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory effects, anti-VEGF and anti-retinal cell apoptosis by activating PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, and thus can protect the retina and slow the DR progression.

Retinal VIP-amacrine cells: their development, structure, and function

Amacrine cells (ACs) are the most structurally and functionally diverse neuron type in the retina. Different ACs have distinct functions, such as neuropeptide secretion and inhibitory connection. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) -ergic -ACs are retina gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) -ergic -ACs that were discovered long ago. They secrete VIP and form connections with bipolar cells (BCs), other ACs, and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). They have a specific structure, density, distribution, and function. They play an important role in myopia, light stimulated responses, retinal vascular disease and other ocular diseases. Their significance in the study of refractive development and disease is increasing daily. However, a systematic review of the structure and function of retinal VIP-ACs is lacking. We discussed the detailed characteristics of VIP-ACs from every aspect across species and providing systematic knowledge base for future studies. Our review led to the main conclusion that retinal VIP-ACs develop early, and although their morphology and distribution across species are not the same, they have similar functions in a wide range of ocular diseases based on their function of secreting neuropeptides and forming inhibitory connections with other cells.

Pathogenesis of diabetic complications: Exploring hypoxic niche formation and HIF-1α activation

Hypoxia is a common feature of diabetic tissues, which highly correlates to the progression of diabetes. The formation of hypoxic context is induced by disrupted oxygen homeostasis that is predominantly driven by vascular remodeling in diabetes. While different types of vascular impairments have been reported, the specific features and underlying mechanisms are yet to be fully understood. Under hypoxic condition, cells upregulate hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), an oxygen sensor that coordinates oxygen concentration and cell metabolism under hypoxic conditions. However, diabetic context exploits this machinery for pathogenic functions. Although HIF-1α protects cells from diabetic insult in multiple tissues, it also jeopardizes cell function in the retina. To gain a deeper understanding of hypoxia in diabetic complications, we focus on the formation of tissue hypoxia and the outcomes of HIF-1α dysregulation under diabetic context. Hopefully, this review can provide a better understanding on hypoxia biology in diabetes.

Neuroprotective effect of the PACAP-ADNP axis on SOD1G93A mutant motor neuron death induced by trophic factors deprivation

Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the central nervous system. Mutations in the gene encoding Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) account for approximately in 20% of familial ALS cases. The pathological mechanisms underlying the toxicity induced by mutated SOD1 are still unknown. However, it has been hypothesized that oxidative stress (OS) has a crucial role in motor neuron degeneration in ALS patients. Moreover, it has been described that SOD1 mutation interferes expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a protective key modulator against OS and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. The protective effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) has been demonstrated in various neurological disorders, including ALS. Some of its effects are mediated by the stimulation of an intracellular factor known as activity-dependent protein (ADNP). The role of PACAP-ADNP axis on mutated SOD1 motor neuron degeneration has not been explored, yet. The present study aimed to investigate whether PACAP prevented apoptotic cell death induced by growth factor deprivation through ADNP activation and whether the peptidergic axis can counteract the OS insult. By using an in vitro model of ALS, we demonstrated that PACAP by binding to PAC1 receptor (PAC1R) prevented motor neuron death induced by serum deprivation through induction of the ADNP expression via PKC stimulation. Furthermore, we have also demonstrated that the PACAP/ADNP axis counteracted ROS formation by inducing translocation of the Nfr2 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. In conclusion, our study provides new insights regarding the protective role of PACAP-ADNP in ALS.

PACAP-ADNP axis prevents outer retinal barrier breakdown and choroidal neovascularization by interfering with VEGF secreted from retinal pigmented epitelium cells

During diabetic retinopathy (DR) progression, the retina undergoes various metabolic changes, including hypoxia-signalling cascade induction in the cells of retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE). The overexpression of hypoxic inducible factors causes transcription of many target genes including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The RPE cells form the outer blood retinal barrier (oBRB), a specialized structure that regulates ions and metabolites flux into the retina to maintain a suitable quality of its extracellular microenvironment. VEGF worsens retinal condition since its secretion from the basolateral compartment of RPE cells compromises the barrier's integrity and induces choroidal neovascularization. In this work, we hypothesized that PACAP prevents the damage to oBRB and controls choroidal neovascularization through the induction of ADNP. Firstly, we demonstrated that ADNP is expressed in Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic animals. To validate our hypothesis, we cultured endothelial cells (H5V) forming vessels-like structures, in a conditioned medium (CM) derived from ARPE-19 cells exposed to hyperglycaemic/hypoxic insult, containing a known VEGF concentration. The involvement of PACAP-ADNP axis on oBRB integrity was evaluated through the measurement of trans-epithelial-electrical resistance and permeability assay performed on ARPE cell monolayer cultured in CM and by analysing the expression of two tight junction forming proteins, ZO1 and occludin. By culturing H5V in CM, we demonstrated that PACAP-ADNP axis counteracted vessels-like structures formation promoted by VEGF. In conclusion, the results suggested a primary role of PACAP/ADNP axis in preventing oBRB damage and in controlling aberrant choroidal neovascularization induced by VEGF secreted from RPE cells exposed to hyperglycaemia/hypoxic insult in DR.

Regulation of UV-B-Induced Inflammatory Mediators by Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP)-Derived Peptide (NAP) in Corneal Epithelium

The corneal epithelium, representing the outermost layer of the cornea, acts as a barrier to protect the eye against external insults such as ultraviolet B (UV-B) radiations. The inflammatory response induced by these adverse events can alter the corneal structure, leading to visual impairment. In a previous study, we demonstrated the positive effects of NAP, the active fragment of activity-dependent protein (ADNP), against oxidative stress induced by UV-B radiations. Here, we investigated its role to counteract the inflammatory event triggered by this insult contributing to the disruption of the corneal epithelial barrier. The results indicated that NAP treatment prevents UV-B-induced inflammatory processes by affecting IL-1β cytokine expression and NF-κB activation, as well as maintaining corneal epithelial barrier integrity. These findings may be useful for the future development of an NAP-based therapy for corneal disease.

MicroRNA-21: A critical underestimated molecule in diabetic retinopathy

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has grown in attention in recent years as a result of its debilitating complications and chronic disabilities. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a chronic microvascular complication of DM and is considered as the primary reason for blindness in adults. Early diagnosis of diabetes complications along with targeted therapy options are critical in avoiding morbidity and mortality associated with complications of diabetes. miR-21 is an important and widely studied non-coding-RNA (ncRNA) with considerable roles in various pathologic conditions including diabetic complications. miR-21 is one of the most elevated miRNAs in response to hyperglycemia and its role in angiogenesis is a major culprit of a wide range of disorders including DR. The main role of miR-21 in DR pathophysiology is believed to be through regulating angiogenesis in retina. This article aims to outline miR-21 biogenesis and distribution in human body along with discussions about its role in DR pathogenesis and its biomarker value in order to facilitate understanding of the new characteristics of miR-21 in DR management.

Chromatin remodeler Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP) contributes to syndromic autism

BACKGROUND

Individuals affected with autism often suffer additional co-morbidities such as intellectual disability. The genes contributing to autism cluster on a relatively limited number of cellular pathways, including chromatin remodeling. However, limited information is available on how mutations in single genes can result in such pleiotropic clinical features in affected individuals. In this review, we summarize available information on one of the most frequently mutated genes in syndromic autism the Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP).

RESULTS

Heterozygous and predicted loss-of-function ADNP mutations in individuals inevitably result in the clinical presentation with the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome, a frequent form of syndromic autism. ADNP, a zinc finger DNA-binding protein has a role in chromatin remodeling: The protein is associated with the pericentromeric protein HP1, the SWI/SNF core complex protein BRG1, and other members of this chromatin remodeling complex and, in murine stem cells, with the chromodomain helicase CHD4 in a ChAHP complex. ADNP has recently been shown to possess R-loop processing activity. In addition, many additional functions, for instance, in association with cytoskeletal proteins have been linked to ADNP.

CONCLUSIONS

We here present an integrated evaluation of all current aspects of gene function and evaluate how abnormalities in chromatin remodeling might relate to the pleiotropic clinical presentation in individual"s" with Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome.

Specific RNA m6A modification sites in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells from the jawbone marrow of type 2 diabetes patients with dental implant failure

The failure rate of dental implantation in patients with well-controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is higher than that in non-diabetic patients. This due, in part, to the impaired function of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) from the jawbone marrow of T2DM patients (DM-BMSCs), limiting implant osseointegration. RNA N6-methyladenine (m6A) is important for BMSC function and diabetes regulation. However, it remains unclear how to best regulate m6A modifications in DM-BMSCs to enhance function. Based on the "m6A site methylation stoichiometry" of m6A single nucleotide arrays, we identified 834 differential m6A-methylated genes in DM-BMSCs compared with normal-BMSCs (N-BMSCs), including 43 and 790 m6A hypermethylated and hypomethylated genes, respectively, and 1 gene containing hyper- and hypomethylated m6A sites. Differential m6A hypermethylated sites were primarily distributed in the coding sequence, while hypomethylated sites were mainly in the 3'-untranslated region. The largest and smallest proportions of m6A-methylated genes were on chromosome 1 and 21, respectively. MazF-PCR and real-time RT-PCR results for the validation of erythrocyte membrane protein band 4.1 like 3, activity-dependent neuroprotector homeobox (ADNP), growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), and regulator of G protein signalling 2 agree with m6A single nucleotide array results; ADNP and GDF11 mRNA expression decreased in DM-BMSCs. Furthermore, gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses suggested that most of these genes were enriched in metabolic processes. This study reveals the differential m6A sites of DM-BMSCs compared with N-BMSCs and identifies candidate target genes to enhance BMSC function and improve implantation success in T2DM patients.

Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP): An Overview of Its Role in the Eye

Vision is one of the dominant senses in humans and eye health is essential to ensure a good quality of life. Therefore, there is an urgent necessity to identify effective therapeutic candidates to reverse the progression of different ocular pathologies. Activity-dependent neuroprotective protein (ADNP) is a protein involved in the physio-pathological processes of the eye. Noteworthy, is the small peptide derived from ADNP, known as NAP, which shows protective, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties. Herein, we review the current state of knowledge concerning the role of ADNP in ocular pathologies, while providing an overview of eye anatomy.

Capsaicin ameliorates diabetic retinopathy by inhibiting poldip2-induced oxidative stress

Background

Oxidative stress and the resultant hyperpermeability play a vital role in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy (DR). Poldip2 has been implicated in H₂O₂ production, but the effects of capsaicin on poldip2 have not been reported.

Methods

Diabetic Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats induced with STZ were treated with capsaicin or AAV₉-poldip2-shRNA, and human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs) were treated with capsaicin or poldip2 siRNA.

Results

Current data indicated that the expression of PPARγ, poldip2, Nox4, VCAM-1, HIF-1α, and VEGF increased in rat retinas with DR and in HRMECs treated with high glucose. The production of ROS or H₂O₂ in the tissues, serum, and cells increased, and the paracellular permeability of cultured HRMECs with high glucose significantly increased. In addition, overt hyperpermeability of retinal microvessels and increased retinal neovascularization in diabetic rats were observed. However, capsaicin treatment inhibited these increases and suppressed the expression of PPARγ by enhancing its phosphorylation and ubiquitination in the retinas of DR rats. Poldip2 knockdown in HRMECs or its silencing in the retina of DR rats concomitantly led to reduced levels of Nox4, VCAM-1, HIF-1α, VEGF, ROS, and H₂O₂, and the paracellular permeability of HRMECs or the hyperpermeability of retinal microvessels in diabetic rat retinas decreased. Similarly, after PPARγ knockdown in HRMECs, poldip2, Nox4, HIF-1α, VEGF, ROS, and H₂O₂ decreased, and the monolayer paracellular permeability was reduced accordingly.

Conclusion

Capsaicin may ameliorate diabetic retinopathy by activating TRPV1 and suppressing the PPARγ-poldip2-Nox4 pathway.

Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP)-Derived Peptide (NAP) Counteracts UV-B Radiation-Induced ROS Formation in Corneal Epithelium

The corneal epithelium, the outermost layer of the cornea, acts as a dynamic barrier preventing access to harmful agents into the intraocular space. It is subjected daily to different insults, and ultraviolet B (UV-B) irradiation represents one of the main causes of injury. In our previous study, we demonstrated the beneficial effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) against UV-B radiation damage in the human corneal endothelium. Some of its effects are mediated through the activation of the intracellular factor, known as the activity-dependent protein (ADNP). In the present paper, we have investigated the role of ADNP and the small peptide derived from ADNP, known as NAP, in the corneal epithelium. Here, we have demonstrated, for the first time, ADNP expression in human and rabbit corneal epithelium as well as its protective effect by treating the corneal epithelial cells exposed to UV-B radiations with NAP. Our results showed that NAP treatment prevents ROS formation by reducing UV-B-irradiation-induced apoptotic cell death and JNK signalling pathway activation. Further investigations are needed to deeply investigate the possible therapeutic use of NAP to counteract corneal UV-B damage.

The Role of HIF1α-PFKFB3 Pathway in Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of blindness for adults in developed countries. Both microvasculopathy and neurodegeneration are implicated in mechanisms of DR development, with neuronal impairment preceding microvascular abnormalities, which is often underappreciated in the clinic. Most current therapeutic strategies, including anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF)-antibodies, aim at treating the advanced stages (diabetic macular edema and proliferative diabetic retinopathy) and fail to target the neuronal deterioration. Hence, new therapeutic approach(es) intended to address both vascular and neuronal impairment are urgently needed. The hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α)-6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3) pathway is critically implicated in the islet pathology of diabetes. Recent evidence highlighted the pathway relevance for pathologic angiogenesis and neurodegeneration, two key aspects in DR. PFKFB3 is key to the sprouting angiogenesis, along with VEGF, by determining the endothelial tip-cell competition. Also, PFKFB3-driven glycolysis compromises the antioxidative capacity of neurons leading to neuronal loss and reactive gliosis. Therefore, the HIF1α-PFKFB3 signaling pathway is unique as being a pervasive pathological component across multiple cell types in the retina in the early as well as late stages of DR. A metabolic point-of-intervention based on HIF1α-PFKFB3 targeting thus deserves further consideration in DR.

Attenuation of High Glucose-Induced Damage in RPE Cells through p38 MAPK Signaling Pathway Inhibition

This study aimed to investigate the high glucose damage on human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, the role of p38 MAPK signaling pathway and how dimethyl fumarate can regulate that. We carried out in vitro studies on ARPE-19 cells exposed to physiological and high glucose (HG) conditions, to evaluate the effects of DMF on cell viability, apoptosis, and expression of inflammatory and angiogenic biomarkers such as COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β, and VEGF. Our data have demonstrated that DMF treatment attenuated HG-induced apoptosis, as confirmed by reduction of BAX/Bcl-2 ratio. Furthermore, in RPE cells exposed to HG we observed a significant increase of iNOS, COX-2, and IL-1β expression, that was reverted by DMF treatment. Moreover, DMF reduced the VEGF levels elicited by HG, inhibiting p38 MAPK signaling pathway. The present study demonstrated that DMF provides a remarkable protection against high glucose-induced damage in RPE cells through p38 MAPK inhibition and the subsequent down-regulation of VEGF levels, suggesting that DMF is a small molecule that represents a good candidate for diabetic retinopathy treatment and warrants further in vivo and clinical evaluation.

Melatonin prevents blood-retinal barrier breakdown and mitochondrial dysfunction in high glucose and hypoxia-induced in vitro diabetic macular edema model

Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a leading cause of blindness in diabetic retinopathy. Prolonged hyperglycemia plus hypoxia contributes to DME pathogenesis. Retinal pigmented epithelial cells comprise the outer blood-retinal barrier and are essential for maintaining physiological functioning of the retina. Melatonin acts as an antioxidant and regulator of mitochondrial bioenergetics and has a protective effect against ocular diseases. However, the role of mitochondrial dysfunction and the therapeutic potential of melatonin in DME remain largely unexplored. Here, we used an in vitro model of DME to investigate blood-retinal barrier integrity and permeability, angiogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, and apoptosis signaling to evaluate the potential protective efficacy of melatonin in DME. We found that melatonin prevents cell hyper-permeability and outer barrier breakdown by reducing HIF-1α, HIF-1β and VEGF and VEGF receptor gene expression. In addition, melatonin reduced the expression of genes involved in mitochondrial fission (DRP1, hFis1, MIEF2, MFF), mitophagy (PINK, BNip3, NIX), and increased the expression of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC-1α, NRF2, PPAR-γ) to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis. Moreover, melatonin prevented apoptosis of retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Our results suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction may be involved in DME pathology, and melatonin may have therapeutic value in DME, by targeting signaling in mitochondria.

The Protective Effects of Endogenous PACAP in Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy

Pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide having trophic and protective functions in neural tissues, including the retina. Previously, we have shown that intravitreal PACAP administration can maintain retinal structure in the animal model of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). The purpose of this study is to examine the development of ROP in PACAP-deficient and wild-type mice to reveal the function of endogenous PACAP. Wild-type and PACAP-knockout (KO) mouse pups at postnatal day (PD) 7 were maintained at 75% oxygen for 5 consecutive days then returned to room air on PD12 to develop oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). On PD15, animals underwent electroretinography (ERG) to assess visual function. On PD16, eyes were harvested for either immunohistochemistry to determine the percentage of the central avascular retinal area or molecular analysis to assess angiogenesis proteins by array kit and anti-apoptotic protein kinase B (Akt) change by western blot. Retinas of PACAP-deficient OIR mice showed a greater central avascular area than that of the wild types. ERG revealed significantly decreased b-wave amplitude in PACAP KO compared to their controls. Several angiogenic proteins were upregulated due to OIR, and 11 different proteins markedly increased in PACAP-deficient mice, whereas western blot analysis revealed a reduction in Akt phosphorylation, suggesting an advanced cell death in the lack of PACAP. This is the first study to examine the endogenous effect of PACAP in the OIR model. Previously, we have shown the beneficial effect of exogenous local PACAP treatment in the rat OIR model. Together with the present findings, we suggest that PACAP could be a novel retinoprotective agent in ROP.

Astaxanthin mediated regulation of VEGF through HIF1α and XBP1 signaling pathway: An insight from ARPE-19 cell and streptozotocin mediated diabetic rat model

Breakdown of outer blood-retina barrier (BRB) has been associated with the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic macular edema (DME). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) might play a detrimental role in the pathogenesis of DME, a major clinical manifestation of DR. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory mechanism of astaxanthin on VEGF and its upstream signaling pathways under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Astaxanthin has been observed to downregulate VEGF expression under hyperglycemic (HG) and CoCl₂ induced hypoxic conditions in ARPE-19 cells. There were compelling pieces of evidence for the involvement of transcription factors like HIF1α and XBP1 in the upregulation of VEGF under HG and hypoxic conditions. Thus, we investigated the role of astaxanthin in the expression and nuclear translocation of HIF1α and XBP1. The activation and translocation of HIF1α and XBP1 induced by HG or CoCl₂ conditions were hindered by astaxanthin. Additionally, treatment with HIF1α siRNA and IRE1 inhibitor STF-083010 also inhibited the expression of VEGF induced by HG and CoCl₂ conditions. These results indicated that the anti-VEGF property of astaxanthin might be associated with the downregulation of HIF1α and XBP1. Furthermore, astaxanthin mitigated the enhanced migration of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells under DR conditions. As well, astaxanthin protected disorganization of zona occludin-1 (ZO-1) tight junction protein in RPE and reduced HG or hypoxic induced permeability of RPE cells. In streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model, astaxanthin reduced the expression of HIF1α, XBP1, and VEGF as well as protected the abnormalities in the retinal layers induced by diabetes condition. Thus, astaxanthin may be used as a potential nutraceutical to prevent or treat retinal dysfunction in diabetic patients.

A novel organic cation transporter involved in paeonol transport across the inner blood-retinal barrier and changes in uptake in high glucose conditions

Paeonol exerts various pharmacological effects owing to its antiangiogenic, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities. We aimed to investigate the transport mechanism of paeonol across the inner blood-retinal barrier both in vitro and in vivo. The carotid artery single injection method was used to investigate the retina uptake index of paeonol. The retina uptake index (RUI) value of [³H]paeonol was dependent on both concentration and pH. This value decreased significantly in the presence of imperatorin, tramadol, and pyrilamine when compared to the control. However, para-aminohippuric acid, choline, and taurine had no effect on the RUI value. Conditionally immortalized rat retina capillary endothelial cells (TR-iBRB cell lines) were used as an in vitro model of the inner blood-retinal barrier (iBRB). The uptake of [³H]paeonol by the TR-iBRB cell lines was found to be time-, concentration-, and pH-dependent. However, the uptake was unaffected by the absence of sodium or by membrane potential disruption. Moreover, in vitro structural analog studies revealed that [³H]paeonol uptake was inhibited in the presence of organic cationic compounds including imperatorin, clonidine and tramadol. This is consistent with the results obtained in vivo. In addition, transfections with OCTN1, 2 or plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT) small interfering RNA did not affect paeonol uptake in TR-iBRB cell lines. Upon pre-incubation of these cell lines with high glucose (HG) media, [³H]paeonol uptake decreased and mRNA expression levels of angiogenetic factors, such as hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) increased. However, after the pretreatment of unlabeled paeonol in HG conditions, the mRNA levels of VEGF and HIF-1 were comparatively reduced, and the [³H]paeonol uptake rate was restored. After being exposed to inflammatory conditions induced by glutamate, TNF-α, and LPS, paeonol and propranolol pretreatment significantly increased the uptake of both [³H]paeonol and [³H]propranolol in TR-iBRB cell lines compared to their respective controls. Our results demonstrate that the transport of paeonol to the retina across the iBRB may involve the proton-coupled organic cation antiporter system, and the uptake of paeonol is changed by HG conditions.

Effects of thiamine and fenofibrate on high glucose and hypoxia-induced damage in cell models of the inner blood-retinal barrier

AIMS

Although diabetic retinopathy has long been considered a microvascular complication, retinal neurodegeneration and inflammation may precede its clinical manifestations. Despite all research efforts, the primary treatment options remain laser photocoagulation and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) intravitreal injections, both aggressive and targeting the late stages of the disease. Medical treatments addressing the early phases of diabetic retinopathy are therefore needed. We aimed at verifying if thiamine and fenofibrate protect the cells of the inner blood-retinal barrier from the metabolic stress induced by diabetic-like conditions.

METHODS

Human microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs), retinal pericytes (HRPs) and Müller cells (MIO-M1) were cultured in intermittent high glucose (intHG) and/or hypoxia, with addition of fenofibrate or thiamine. Modulation of adhesion molecules and angiogenic factors was addressed.

RESULTS

Integrins β1/αVβ3 and ICAM1 were upregulated in HMECs/HRPs cultured in diabetic-like conditions, as well as metalloproteases MMP2/9 in HRP, with a reduction in their inhibitor TIMP1; MMP2 increased also in HMEC, and TIMP1 decreased in MIO-M1. VEGF and HIF-1α were strongly increased in HMEC in intHG + hypoxia, and VEGF also in HRP. Ang-1/2 augmented in HMEC/MIO-M1, and MCP-1 in HRP/MIO-M1 in intHG + hypoxia. Thiamine was able to normalize all such abnormal modulations, while fenofibrate had effects in few cases only.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that endothelial cells and pericytes are more affected than Müller cells by diabetic-like conditions. Fenofibrate shows a controversial behavior, potentially positive on Müller cells and pericytes, but possibly detrimental to endothelium, while thiamine confirms once more to be an effective agent in reducing diabetes-induced retinal damage.

Research and Publication Ethics in Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology

Research is required to minimize uncertainty and to be reproducible, that is, the design, implementation, evaluation, interpretation, and reporting of the presented data, must follow a good practice. An appropriate experimental design, an accurate execution of the study, a strict criticism of the obtained data while avoiding overestimation, as well as a suitable interpretation of main outcomes, represent key aspects in reporting and disseminating research to the scientific community. Furthermore, author contribution, responsibility, funding, acknowledgement, and adequately declaring any conflict of interest play important roles in science. The Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK), a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), is committed to the highest scientific and ethical standards and encourages all authors to take into account and to comply, as much as possible, with the contents and issues reported in this technical note. This could be useful to improve the quality of the manuscripts and avoid misconduct, as well as to stimulate interest and debate, reflecting upon uses and misuses within our disciplines belonging to the medicine area (sports medicine and movement sciences) categories: anatomy, histology, orthopedics and sports medicine, rheumatology, sports sciences, physical therapy, sports therapy, and rehabilitation.

Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography in Diabetes and Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus that disrupts the retinal microvasculature and is a leading cause of vision loss globally. Recently, optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) has been developed to image the retinal microvasculature, by generating 3-dimensional images based on the motion contrast of circulating blood cells. OCTA offers numerous benefits over traditional fluorescein angiography in visualizing the retinal vasculature in that it is non-invasive and safer; while its depth-resolved ability makes it possible to visualize the finer capillaries of the retinal capillary plexuses and choriocapillaris. High-quality OCTA images have also enabled the visualization of features associated with DR, including microaneurysms and neovascularization and the quantification of alterations in retinal capillary and choriocapillaris, thereby suggesting a promising role for OCTA as an objective technology for accurate DR classification. Of interest is the potential of OCTA to examine the effect of DR on individual retinal layers, and to detect DR even before it is clinically detectable on fundus examination. We will focus the review on the clinical applicability of OCTA derived quantitative metrics that appear to be clinically relevant to the diagnosis, classification, and management of patients with diabetes or DR. Future studies with longitudinal design of multiethnic multicenter populations, as well as the inclusion of pertinent systemic information that may affect vascular changes, will improve our understanding on the benefit of OCTA biomarkers in the detection and progression of DR.

PACAP Modulates the Autophagy Process in an In Vitro Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of complex etiology leading to motor neuron degeneration. Many gene alterations cause this pathology, including mutation in Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1), which leads to its gain of function. Mutant SOD1 proteins are prone to aberrant misfolding and create aggregates that impair autophagy. The hypoxic stress is strictly linked to the disease progression since it induces uncontrolled autophagy activation and the consequent high rates of cell death. Previously, we showed that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts neurotrophic activity in cultured mSOD1 motor neurons exposed to serum deprivation. To date, no studies have examined whether the protective effect of PACAP on mSOD1 cells exposed to hypoxic insult is mediated through the regulation of the autophagy process. In the present study, we used the neuroblastoma-spinal cord-34 (NSC-34) cell line, stably expressing human wild type or mutant SOD1 G93A, to represent a well characterized in vitro model of a familial form of ALS. These cells were exposed to 100-µM desferrioxamine mesylate salt for 24h, to mimic the hypoxic stress affecting motor neurons during the disease progression. Our results showed that PACAP treatment significantly reduced cell death and hypoxia-induced mSOD1 accumulation by modulating the autophagy process in G93A motor neurons, as revealed by the decreased LC3II and the increased p62 levels, two autophagy indicators. These results were also confirmed by evaluating the vacuole formation detected through light chain 3 (LC3) immunofluorescence. Furthermore, the PACAP effects on autophagy seem to be mediated through the activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Overall, our data demonstrated that PACAP exerts an ameliorative effect on the mSOD1 motor neuron viability by modulating a hypoxia-induced autophagy process through activation of MAPK/ERK signaling cascade.

Epithelial Membrane Protein 2 (EMP2) Promotes VEGF-Induced Pathological Neovascularization in Murine Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy

Purpose

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a leading cause of childhood blindness. ROP occurs as a consequence of postnatal hyperoxia exposure in premature infants, resulting in vasoproliferation in the retina. The tetraspan protein epithelial membrane protein-2 (EMP2) is highly expressed in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in adults, and it controls vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production in the ARPE-19 cell line. We, therefore, hypothesized that Emp2 knockout (Emp2 KO) protects against neovascularization in murine oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR).

Methods

Eyes were obtained from wildtype (WT) and Emp2 KO mouse pups at P7, P12, P17, and P21 after normoxia or hyperoxia (P7-P12) exposure. Following hyperoxia exposure, RNA sequencing was performed using the retina/choroid layers obtained from WT and Emp2 KO at P17. Retinal sections from P7, P12, P17, and P21 were evaluated for Emp2, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (Hif1α), and VEGF expression. Whole mount images were generated to assess vaso-obliteration at P12 and neovascularization at P17.

Results

Emp2 KO OIR mice demonstrated a decrease in pathologic neovascularization at P17 compared with WT OIR mice through evaluation of retinal vascular whole mount images. This protection was accompanied by a decrease in Hif1α at P12 and VEGFA expression at P17 in Emp2 KO animals compared with the WT animals in OIR conditions. Collectively, our results suggest that EMP2 enhances the effects of neovascularization through modulation of angiogenic signaling.

Conclusions

The protection of Emp2 KO mice against pathologic neovascularization through attenuation of HIF and VEGF upregulation in OIR suggests that hypoxia-induced upregulation of EMP2 expression in the neuroretina modulates HIF-mediated neuroretinal VEGF expression.

Protective effect of PACAP against ultraviolet B radiation-induced human corneal endothelial cell injury

The human cornea, a sophisticated example of natural engineering, is composed in the innermost layer by endothelial cells maintaining stromal hydration and clarity. Different types of insults, including ultraviolet (UV) radiations, can lead to corneal opacity due to their degenerative and limited proliferative capability. In our previous studies, we have shown the protective effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) in human corneal endothelial cells (HCECs), after growth factors deprivation. The aim of the present work has been to investigate the effect of this peptide on UV-B-induced HCECs injury. The results have shown that UV-B irradiations induced apoptotic cells death and consequently alteration in human corneal endothelial barrier. We found that PACAP treatment significantly increased viability, trans-endothelial electrical resistance and tight junctions expression of HCECs exposed to UV-B insult. In conclusion, data have suggested that this peptide could have protective effect to preserve the physiological state of human corneal endothelium exposed to UV-B damage.

TREM-2-p38 MAPK signaling regulates neuroinflammation during chronic cerebral hypoperfusion combined with diabetes mellitus

Background

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion(CCH)are both risk factors for cognitive impairment. However, whether DM and CCH can synergistically promote cognitive impairment and the related pathological mechanisms remain unknown.

Methods

To investigate the effect of DM and CCH on cognitive function, rats fed with high-fat diet (HFD) and injected with low-dose streptozotocin (STZ) followed by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) were induced to mimic DM and CCH in vivo and mouse BV2 microglial cells were exposed to hypoxia and/or high glucose to mimic CCH complicated with DM pathologies in vitro. To further explore the underlying mechanism, TREM-2-specific small interfering RNA and TREM-2 overexpression lentivirus were used to knock out and overexpress TREM-2, respectively.

Results

Cognitive deficits, neuronal cell death, neuroinflammation with microglial activation, and TREM-2-MAPK signaling were enhanced when DM was superimposed on CCH both in vivo and in vitro. Manipulating TREM-2 expression levels markedly regulated the p38 MAPK signaling and the inflammatory response in vitro. TREM-2 knockout intensified while TREM-2 overexpression suppressed the p38 MAPK signaling and subsequent pro-inflammatory mediator production under high glucose and hypoxia condition.

Conclusions

These results suggest that TREM-2 negatively regulates p38 MAPK-mediated inflammatory response when DM was synergistically superimposed on CCH and highlight the importance of TREM-2 as a potential target of immune regulation in DM and CCH.

Erythropoietin protects outer blood-retinal barrier in experimental diabetic retinopathy by up-regulating ZO-1 and occludin

PURPOSE

To explore the mechanisms of erythropoietin (EPO) in maintaining outer blood-retinal barrier (BRB) in diabetic rats.

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were rendered diabetic with intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin, and then followed by intravitreal injection of EPO. Two and four weeks later, the permeability of outer BRB was examined with FITC-dextran leakage assay, following a method to demarcate the inner and outer retina based on retinal blood supply. The glyoxal-treated ARPE-19 cells, incubated with EPO, soluble EPO receptor (sEPOR), Gö6976, or digoxin, were studied for cell viability and barrier function. The expressions of ZO-1, occludin, VEGFR2, HIF-1α, MAPKs, and AKT were examined with Western blot and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

The major Leakage of FITC-dextran was detected in the outer nuclear layer in both 2- and 4-week diabetic rats. The leakage was largely ameliorated in EPO-treated diabetic rats. The protein expressions of ZO-1 and occludin in the RPE-Bruch's membrane choriocapillaris complex were significantly decreased, whereas HIF-1α and JNK pathways were activated, in 4-week diabetic rats. These changes were prevented by EPO treatment. The in vitro study with ARPE-19 cells confirmed these changes, and the protective effect of EPO was abolished by sEPOR. Gö6976 and digoxin rescued the tight junction and barrier function in glyoxal-treated ARPE-19 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In early diabetic rats, the outer BRB might be more severely damaged and its breakdown is the major factor for retinal oedema. EPO maintains the outer BRB integrity through down-regulation of HIF-1α and JNK signallings, and thus up-regulating ZO-1 and occludin expressions in RPE cells.

Neuroprotective Peptides in Retinal Disease

In the pathogenesis of many disorders, neuronal death plays a key role. It is now assumed that neurodegeneration is caused by multiple and somewhat converging/overlapping death mechanisms, and that neurons are sensitive to unique death styles. In this respect, major advances in the knowledge of different types, mechanisms, and roles of neurodegeneration are crucial to restore the neuronal functions involved in neuroprotection. Several novel concepts have emerged recently, suggesting that the modulation of the neuropeptide system may provide an entirely new set of pharmacological approaches. Neuropeptides and their receptors are expressed widely in mammalian retinas, where they exert neuromodulatory functions including the processing of visual information. In multiple models of retinal diseases, different peptidergic substances play neuroprotective actions. Herein, we describe the novel advances on the protective roles of neuropeptides in the retina. In particular, we focus on the mechanisms by which peptides affect neuronal death/survival and the vascular lesions commonly associated with retinal neurodegenerative pathologies. The goal is to highlight the therapeutic potential of neuropeptide systems as neuroprotectants in retinal diseases.

Retinoprotective Effects of TAT-Bound Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) belong to the same peptide family and exert a variety of biological functions. Both PACAP and VIP have protective effects in several tissues. While PACAP is known to be a stronger retinoprotective peptide, VIP has very potent anti-inflammatory effects. The need for a non-invasive therapeutic approach has emerged and PACAP has been shown to be retinoprotective when administered in the form of eye drops as well. The cell penetrating peptide TAT is composed of 11 amino acids and tagging of TAT at the C-terminus of neuropeptides PACAP/VIP can enhance the traversing ability of the peptides through the biological barriers. We hypothesized that TAT-bound PACAP and VIP could be more effective in exerting retinoprotective effects when given in eye drops, by increasing the traversing efficacy and enhancing the activation of the PAC1 receptor. Rats were subjected to bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO), and retinas were processed for histological analysis 14 days later. The efficiency of the TAT-bound peptides to reach the retina was assessed as well as their cAMP increasing ability. Our present study provides evidence, for the first time, that topically administered PACAP and VIP derivatives (PACAP-TAT and VIP-TAT) attenuate ischemic retinal degeneration via the PAC1 receptor presumably due to a multifactorial protective mechanism.

NAP modulates hyperglycemic-inflammatory event of diabetic retina by counteracting outer blood retinal barrier damage

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common microvascular complication of diabetes. Prolonged hyperglycemia stimulates inflammatory pathway characterized by the release of some cytokines leading to the impairment of blood retinal barrier (BRB). NAP exerts a protective effect in various eye diseases, including DR. So far, the role of NAP in the modulation of inflammatory event during early phase of this pathology has not been investigated yet. In the current study, we have studied the retinal protective effect of NAP, injected into the eye, in diabetic rats. NAP treatment exerts a dual effect downregulating interleukin (IL)-1β and its related receptors and upregulating IL-1Ra expression. We have also tested the role of this peptide in human retinal epithelial cells (ARPE19) cultured on a semipermeable support and exposed to hyperglycemic-inflammatory insult, representing a in vitro model of diabetic macular edema, a clinical manifestation of DR. The results have shown that NAP prevents outer BRB impairment by upregulating the tight junctions. In conclusion, deepened characterization of NAP action mechanism on hyperglycemic-inflammatory damage may be useful to develop a new strategy to prevent retinal damage during DR.

Retinoprotective Effects of TAT-Bound Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) belong to the same peptide family and exert a variety of biological functions. Both PACAP and VIP have protective effects in several tissues. While PACAP is known to be a stronger retinoprotective peptide, VIP has very potent anti-inflammatory effects. The need for a non-invasive therapeutic approach has emerged and PACAP has been shown to be retinoprotective when administered in the form of eye drops as well. The cell penetrating peptide TAT is composed of 11 amino acids and tagging of TAT at the C-terminus of neuropeptides PACAP/VIP can enhance the traversing ability of the peptides through the biological barriers. We hypothesized that TAT-bound PACAP and VIP could be more effective in exerting retinoprotective effects when given in eye drops, by increasing the traversing efficacy and enhancing the activation of the PAC1 receptor. Rats were subjected to bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO), and retinas were processed for histological analysis 14 days later. The efficiency of the TAT-bound peptides to reach the retina was assessed as well as their cAMP increasing ability. Our present study provides evidence, for the first time, that topically administered PACAP and VIP derivatives (PACAP-TAT and VIP-TAT) attenuate ischemic retinal degeneration via the PAC1 receptor presumably due to a multifactorial protective mechanism.

PACAP through EGFR transactivation preserves human corneal endothelial integrity

The corneal endothelium is composed of a single hexagonal-shaped cells layer adherent to the Descemet's membrane. The primary function of these cells is maintaining of tissue clarity by regulating its hydration. Trauma, aging or other pathologies cause their loss, counterbalanced by enlargement of survived cells unable to guarantee an efficient fluid pumping to and from the stroma. Regenerative medicine using human corneal endothelial cells (HCECs) isolated from peripheral corneal-scleral tissue of a donor could be an attractive solution, overcoming transplantation problems. In a previous study, we have demonstrated that HCECs treatment with pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) following growth factors deprivation prevents their degeneration. However, the molecular mechanism mediating this effect has not been clarified, yet. Here, we have shown for the first time the expression of PACAP and its receptor (PAC1R) in human corneal endothelium and demonstrated that this peptide, selectively binding to PAC1R, induces epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation and the MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway activation. In conclusion, our data have suggested that PACAP could represent an important trophic factor in maintaining human corneal endothelial integrity through EGFR transactivation. Therefore, PACAP, as well as epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor, could co-operate to guarantee tissue physiological functioning by supporting corneal endothelial barrier integrity.

HIF-1<alpha> Repression of PTEN Transcription Mediates Protective Effects of BMSCs on Neurons During Hypoxia

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) is a cerebral hypoxic-ischemic disease caused by a variety of insults during the perinatal period, leading to varying degrees of cognitive dysfunction. Mesenchymal stem cells play an important role in functional recovery, but the mechanism is not yet clear. It has been reported that HIF-1<alpha> and PTEN are involved in the process of hypoxia-ischemia, but the specific roles that these proteins play remains to be understood. In this study, we performed oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) or CoCl₂ preconditioning on hippocampal neurons to simulate a hypoxic environment in vitro, and then co-cultured them with BMSCs, to observe the effect of BMSCs and the role of HIF-1<alpha>. In addition, bpV, an inhibitor of PTEN was added to OGD neurons to determine the role of PTEN during hypoxia. We found that the levels of cell damage and apoptosis in OGD neurons decreased significantly after co-culture with BMSCs. Apoptosis was increased when HIF-1<alpha> was inhibited, but neurons remained protected when PTEN was suppressed. We further established that HIF-1<alpha> was enriched at the PTEN promoter both in BMSCs and hippocampal neurons, with increased enrichment under hypoxic conditions, leading to reduced transcription of PTEN. Our findings support the conclusion that CoCl₂ preconditioning of BMSCs can simulate hypoxic conditions and can protect OGD neurons, an effect that is mediated through activation of the HIF-1<alpha> system and repression of PTEN transcription.

Mutations in ADNP affect expression and subcellular localization of the protein

Truncating de novo mutations in ADNP have been identified in patients with the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome. However correlations between the distinct mutations and their impact on the protein have not been studied before. Here we report the effect of mutations in ADNP by examining the expression and subcellular localization of GFP-tagged mutant transcripts in transfected HEK293T cells. ADNP encloses a bipartite nuclear localization signal and we found mutations therein to stall the mutant protein within the cytoplasm. Using immunocytochemistry, we could demonstrate colocalization of wild-type ADNP with heterochromatin. We found mutations presenting a pattern based on the genetic position. For certain mutant proteins enrichment at pericentromeric heterochromatin seems partially lost. Finally, N-terminal truncated ADNP mutants are routed towards cytosolic proteasomal degradation and rescued with the proteasome inhibitor MG132. Our results suggest a correlation between the position of the mutations across the protein, its stability and subcellular localization.