Modulation of prey capture kinematics in the cheeklined wrasse Oxycheilinus digrammus (Teleostei: Labridae)

Modulation of prey capture kinematics in relation to prey distance helps predict success

Predators are not perfect, as some of their prey capture attempts result in failure. Successful attempts may be partly due to predators modulating their capture kinematics in relation to variation in the visual cues of the prey to increase the probability of success. In praying mantises, which have been suggested to possess stereoscopic vision, variation in prey distance has been shown to elicit variation in the probability of an attempt. However, it remains to be examined whether variation in prey distance results in mantises modulating their attempt to successfully capture prey. The goals of this study were to examine these relationships using the praying mantis system. Using 11 adult female Sphodromantis lineola, we recorded 192 prey capture attempts at 1000 Hz with two cameras to examine the 3D kinematics of successful and unsuccessful prey capture attempts. Using a combination of principal component analysis (PCA) and logistic regression, our results show that as prey distance increases, mantises adjust through greater and faster expansion of the forelegs and body (PC1), which significantly predicts capture success. However, PC1 only explains 22% of the variation in all prey capture attempts, suggesting that the other components may be related to additional aspects of the prey. Our results suggest that the distances at which mantises prefer to attempt to capture prey may be the result of their greater probability of successfully capturing the prey. These results highlight the range of motions mantises use when attempting to capture prey, suggesting flexibility in their prey capture attempts in relation to prey position.

Functional morphology of prey capture in stream-dwelling sailfin silversides (Telmatherinidae) based on high-speed video recordings

Understanding how ecology shapes the evolution of morphological traits is a major goal in organismal biology. By quantifying force of motion, hypotheses on the function of fundamental tasks of animals like feeding can be tested. Ray-finned fishes use various feeding strategies, classified into three main feeding modes: suction, ram and manipulation. While manipulation feeders are usually distinct in morphology and feeding behavior, differentiation between suction and ram feeders is often fine-scaled and transitional. Previous studies have identified different feeding modes and biomechanical adaptations on interspecific and intersexual levels in lake-dwelling sailfin silversides, species of a Sulawesi freshwater radiation. Functional feeding morphology of stream-dwelling species remained in contrast unstudied. We hypothesized that different requirements of riverine habitats favor the evolution of alternative functional adaptations in stream-dwelling sailfin silversides. To test this hypothesis, we investigated feeding of two phenotypically distinct riverine species, Telmatherina bonti and Marosatherina ladigesi, and their sexes, by high-speed videos and biomechanical models. The kinematic approaches identify T. bonti as ram feeder and M. ladigesi as suction feeder. Surprisingly, the biomechanical models of the jaw apparatus provide contradicting results: only one out of three studied parameters varies between both species. Contrarily to lake-dwelling Telmatherina, sexes of both species do not differ in feeding biomechanics. We conclude that T. bonti predominantly uses ram feeding while M. ladigesi primarily uses suction feeding as its main hunting strategy. Feeding biomechanics of stream-dwelling sailfin silversides are less distinct compared to lake-dwelling species, likely due to different trophic ecologies or less stable ecological conditions.

A new theoretical performance landscape for suction feeding reveals adaptive kinematics in a natural population of reef damselfish

Understanding how organismal traits determine performance and, ultimately, fitness is a fundamental goal of evolutionary eco-morphology. However, multiple traits can interact in non-linear and context-dependent ways to affect performance, hindering efforts to place natural populations with respect to performance peaks or valleys. Here, we used an established mechanistic model of suction-feeding performance (SIFF) derived from hydrodynamic principles to estimate a theoretical performance landscape for zooplankton prey capture. This performance space can be used to predict prey capture performance for any combination of six morphological and kinematic trait values. We then mapped in situ high-speed video observations of suction feeding in a natural population of a coral reef zooplanktivore, Chromis viridis, onto the performance space to estimate the population's location with respect to the topography of the performance landscape. Although the kinematics of the natural population closely matched regions of high performance in the landscape, the population was not located on a performance peak. Individuals were furthest from performance peaks on the peak gape, ram speed and mouth opening speed trait axes. Moreover, we found that the trait combinations in the observed population were associated with higher performance than expected by chance, suggesting that these combinations are under selection. Our results provide a framework for assessing whether natural populations occupy performance optima.

Highlighted Article: The in situ feeding performance of Chromis viridis indicates that the population resides close to a local performance peak.

Kinematic integration during prey capture varies among individuals but not ecological contexts in bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus (Perciformes: Centrarchidae)

The general ability of components of an organism to work together to achieve a common goal has been termed integration and is often studied empirically by deconstructing organisms into component parts and quantifying covariation between them. Kinematic traits describing movement are useful for allowing organisms to respond to ecological contexts that vary over short time spans (milliseconds, minutes, etc.). Integration of these traits can contribute to the maintenance of the function of the whole organism, but it is unclear how modulation of component kinematic traits affects their integration. We examined the integration of swimming and feeding during capture of alternative prey types in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Despite the expected modulation of kinematics, integration within individuals was inflexible across prey types, suggesting functional redundancy for solving a broad constraint. However, integration was variable among individuals, suggesting that individuals vary in their solutions for achieving whole-organism function and that this solution acts as a ‘top-down’ regulator of component traits, which provides insight into why kinematic variation is observed. Additionally, variation in kinematic integration among individuals could serve as an understudied target of environmental selection on prey capture, which is a necessary first step towards the observed divergence in integration among populations and species.

Multifunctional Structures and Multistructural Functions: Integration in the Evolution of Biomechanical Systems

Integration is an essential feature of complex biomechanical systems, with coordination and covariation occurring among and within structural components at time scales that vary from microseconds to deep evolutionary time. Integration has been suggested to both promote and constrain morphological evolution, and the effects of integration on the evolution of structure likely vary by system, clade, historical contingency, and time scale. In this introduction to the 2019 symposium "Multifunctional Structures and Multistructural Functions," we discuss the role of integration among structures in the context of functional integration and multifunctionality. We highlight articles from this issue of Integrative and Comparative Biology that explore integration within and among kinematics, sensory and motor systems, physiological systems, developmental processes, morphometric dimensions, and biomechanical functions. From these myriad examples it is clear that integration can exist at multiple levels of organization that can interact with adjacent levels to result in complex patterns of structural and functional phenotypes. We conclude with a synthesis of major themes and potential future directions, particularly with respect to using multifunctionality, itself, as a trait in evolutionary analyses.

Beyond Suction-Feeding Fishes: Identifying New Approaches to Performance Integration During Prey Capture in Aquatic Vertebrates

Organisms are composed of hierarchically arranged component parts that must work together to successfully achieve whole organism functions. In addition to integration among individual parts, some ecological demands require functional systems to work together in a type of inter-system performance integration. While performance can be measured by the ability to successfully accomplish ecologically relevant tasks, integration across performance traits can provide a deeper understanding of how these traits allow an organism to survive. The ability to move and the ability to consume food are essential to life, but during prey capture these two functions are typically integrated. Suction-feeding fishes have been used as a model of these interactions, but it is unclear how other ecologically relevant scenarios might reduce or change integration. To stimulate further research into these ideas, we highlight three contexts with the potential to result in changes in integration and underlying performance traits: (1) behavioral flexibility in aquatic feeding modes for capturing alternative prey types, (2) changes in the physical demands imposed by prey capture across environments, and (3) secondary adaptation for suction prey capture behaviors. These examples provide a broad scope of potential drivers of integration that are relevant to selection pressures experienced across vertebrate evolution. To demonstrate how these ideas can be applied and stimulate hypotheses, we provide observations from preliminary analyses of locally adapted populations of Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata) capturing prey using suction and biting feeding strategies and an Atlantic mudskipper (Periophthalmus barbarus) capturing prey above and below water. We also include a re-analysis of published data from two species of secondarily aquatic cetaceans, beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) and Pacific white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), to examine the potential for secondary adaptation to affect integration in suction prey capture behaviors. Each of these examples support the broad importance of integration between locomotor and feeding performance but outline new ways that these relationships can be important when suction demands are reduced or altered. Future work in these areas will yield promising insights into vertebrate evolution and we hope to encourage further discussion on possible avenues of research on functional integration during prey capture.

Conserved spatio-temporal patterns of suction-feeding flows across aquatic vertebrates: a comparative flow visualization study

Suction feeding is a widespread prey capture strategy among aquatic vertebrates. It is almost omnipresent across fishes, and has repeatedly evolved in other aquatic vertebrates. By rapidly expanding the mouth cavity, suction-feeders generate a fluid flow outside of their mouth, drawing prey inside. Fish and other suction feeding organisms display remarkable trophic diversity, echoed in the diversity of their skull and mouth morphologies. Yet, it is unclear how variable suction flows are across species, and whether variation in suction flows supports trophic diversity. Using a high-speed flow visualization technique, we characterized the spatio-temporal patterns in the flow fields produced during feeding in 14 species of aquatic suction feeders. We found that suction-feeding hydrodynamics are highly conserved across species. Suction flows affected only a limited volume of ∼1 gape diameter away from the mouth, and peaked around the timing of maximal mouth opening. The magnitude of flow speed increased with increasing mouth diameter and, to a lesser extent, with decreasing time to peak gape opening. Other morphological, kinematic and behavioral variables played a minor role in shaping suction-feeding dynamics. We conclude that the trophic diversity within fishes, and likely other aquatic vertebrates, is not supported by a diversity of mechanisms that modify the characteristics of suction flow. Rather, we suggest that suction feeding supports such trophic diversity due to the general lack of strong trade-offs with other mechanisms that contribute to prey capture.

Modulation of shark prey capture kinematics in response to sensory deprivation

The ability of predators to modulate prey capture in response to the size, location, and behavior of prey is critical to successful feeding on a variety of prey types. Modulating in response to changes in sensory information may be critical to successful foraging in a variety of environments. Three shark species with different feeding morphologies and behaviors were filmed using high-speed videography while capturing live prey: the ram-feeding blacktip shark, the ram-biting bonnethead, and the suction-feeding nurse shark. Sharks were examined intact and after sensory information was blocked (olfaction, vision, mechanoreception, and electroreception, alone and in combination), to elucidate the contribution of the senses to the kinematics of prey capture. In response to sensory deprivation, the blacktip shark demonstrated the greatest amount of modulation, followed by the nurse shark. In the absence of olfaction, blacktip sharks open the jaws slowly, suggestive of less motivation. Without lateral line cues, blacktip sharks capture prey from greater horizontal angles using increased ram. When visual cues are absent, blacktip sharks elevate the head earlier and to a greater degree, allowing them to overcome imprecise position of the prey relative to the mouth, and capture prey using decreased ram, while suction remains unchanged. When visual cues are absent, nurse sharks open the mouth wider, extend the labial cartilages further, and increase suction while simultaneously decreasing ram. Unlike some bony fish, neither species switches feeding modalities (i.e. from ram to suction or vice versa). Bonnetheads failed to open the mouth when electrosensory cues were blocked, but otherwise little to no modulation was found in this species. These results suggest that prey capture may be less plastic in elasmobranchs than in bony fishes, possibly due to anatomical differences, and that the ability to modulate feeding kinematics in response to available sensory information varies by species, rather than by feeding modality.

Prey capture kinematics in batoids using different prey types: investigating the role of the cephalic lobes

Cephalic lobes are novel structures found in some myliobatid stingrays. While undulatory batoids utilize the pectoral fins for prey capture and locomotion, lobed species partition locomotion to the pectoral fins, utilizing the lobes exclusively for prey capture. We investigated the use of the anterior pectoral fins and cephalic lobes in prey capture in five batoid species. The purpose of this study was to investigate the: (1) prey capture kinematics and use of the cephalic lobes in lobed and lobeless batoids; (2) role of the cephalic lobes in modulating capture behavior based on prey type. It was hypothesized that lobed species would display unique capture behaviors resulting in faster and more successful capture of prey, and display greater modulation in capture behavior. Findings showed that lobed species used only the head region for capture, were faster at pouncing and tenting, but slower at mouth opening. The cephalic lobes were more movable than the anterior pectoral fins of lobeless species. Modulation occurred in all species. Elusive prey increased tent duration for the lobeless species, increased mouth opening duration in the lobed Aetobatus narinari, and were farther away from the mouth than non-elusive prey during biting for all species. All species had few prey escapes. Overall, species with cephalic lobes captured prey faster but did not display increased modulatory ability or feeding success. The cephalic lobes help localize prey capture to the head region, speeding up the prey capture event and maintaining an efficient capture rate despite having less flexible pectoral fins.

Modelled three-dimensional suction accuracy predicts prey capture success in three species of centrarchid fishes

Prey capture is critical for survival, and differences in correctly positioning and timing a strike (accuracy) are likely related to variation in capture success. However, an ability to quantify accuracy under natural conditions, particularly for fishes, is lacking. We developed a predictive model of suction hydrodynamics and applied it to natural behaviours using three-dimensional kinematics of three centrarchid fishes capturing evasive and non-evasive prey. A spheroid ingested volume of water (IVW) with dimensions predicted by peak gape and ram speed was verified with known hydrodynamics for two species. Differences in capture success occurred primarily with evasive prey (64-96% success). Micropterus salmoides had the greatest ram and gape when capturing evasive prey, resulting in the largest and most elongate IVW. Accuracy predicted capture success, although other factors may also be important. The lower accuracy previously observed in M. salmoides was not replicated, but this is likely due to more natural conditions in our study. Additionally, we discuss the role of modulation and integrated behaviours in shaping the IVW and determining accuracy. With our model, accuracy is a more accessible performance measure for suction-feeding fishes, which can be used to explore macroevolutionary patterns of prey capture evolution.

A combination of gyroscope and accelerometer for identifying alternative feeding behaviours in fish

We examined whether we could identify the feeding behaviours of the trophic generalist fish Epinephelus ongus on different prey types (crabs and fish) using a data-logger that incorporated a 3-axis gyroscope and a 3-axis accelerometer. Feeding behaviours and other burst behaviours, including escape responses, intraspecific interactions, and routine movements, were recorded from six E. ongus individuals using data-loggers sampling at 200 Hz, and were validated by simultaneously recorded video images. For each data-logger record, we extracted 5 seconds of data when any of the 3-axis accelerations exceeded absolute 2.0 G, to capture all feeding behaviours and other burst behaviours. Each feeding behaviour was then identified using a combination of parameters that were derived from the extracted data. Using decision trees with the parameters, high true identification rates (87.5% for both feeding behaviours) with low false identification rates (5% for crab-eating and 6.3% for fish-eating) were achieved for both feeding behaviours.

Flexibility in locomotor-feeding integration during prey capture in varanid lizards: effects of prey size and velocity

Feeding movements are adjusted in response to food properties, and this flexibility is essential for omnivorous predators as food properties vary routinely. In most lizards, prey capture is no longer considered to solely rely on the movements of the feeding structures (jaws, hyolingual apparatus), but instead is understood to require the integration of the feeding system with the locomotor system (i.e., coordination of movements). Here, we investigate flexibility in the coordination pattern between jaw, neck and forelimb movements in omnivorous varanid lizards feeding on four prey types varying in length and mobility: grasshoppers, live newborn mice, adult mice and dead adult mice. We test for bivariate correlations between 3D locomotor and feeding kinematics, and compare the jaw-neck-forelimb coordination patterns across prey types. Our results reveal that locomotor-feeding integration is essential for the capture of evasive prey, and that different jaw-neck-forelimb coordination patterns are used to capture different prey types. Jaw-neck-forelimb coordination is indeed significantly altered by the length and speed of the prey, indicating that a similar coordination pattern can be finely tuned in response to prey stimuli. These results suggest feed-forward as well as feedback modulation of the control of locomotor-feeding integration. As varanids are considered to be specialized in the capture of evasive prey (although they retain their ability to feed on a wide variety of prey items), flexibility in locomotor-feeding integration in response to prey mobility is proposed to be a key component in their dietary specialization.

New insights from serranid fishes on the role of trade-offs in suction feeding diversification

Suction feeding is central to prey capture in the vast majority of ray-finned fishes and has been well-studied from a detailed, mechanistic perspective. Several major trade-offs are thought to have shaped the diversification of suction feeding morphology and behavior, and have become well established in the literature. We revisited several of these expectations in a study of prey capture morphology and kinematics in 30 species of serranid fishes, a large ecologically variable group that exhibits diverse combinations of suction and forward locomotion. We find: 1) diversity among species in the morphological potential to generate suction changes drastically across the range of attack speeds that species use, with all species that use high-speed attacks having low capacity to generate suction, while slow-speed attackers exhibit the full range of suction abilities. This pattern indicates a more complex 'ram-suction continuum' than previously recognized; 2) there is no trade-off between mechanical advantage of the lower jaw opening lever and the speed of jaw depression, revealing that this simple interpretation of lever mechanics fails to predict kinematic diversity; 3) high-speed attackers show increased cranial excursions, potentially to compensate for a decrease in accuracy; 4) the amount of jaw protrusion is positively related to attack speed, but not suction capacity; and 5) a principal components analysis revealed three significant multivariate axes of kinematic variation among species. Two of the three axes were correlated with the morphological potential to generate suction, indicating important but complex relationships between kinematics and suction potential. These results are consistent with other recent studies that show that trade-offs derived from simple biomechanical models may be less of a constraint on the evolutionary diversification of fish feeding systems than previously thought.

Evolution of high trophic diversity based on limited functional disparity in the feeding apparatus of marine angelfishes (f. Pomacanthidae)

The use of biting to obtain food items attached to the substratum is an ecologically widespread and important mode of feeding among aquatic vertebrates, which rarely has been studied. We did the first evolutionary analyses of morphology and motion kinematics of the feeding apparatus in Indo-Pacific members of an iconic family of biters, the marine angelfishes (f. Pomacanthidae). We found clear interspecific differences in gut morphology that clearly reflected a wide range of trophic niches. In contrast, feeding apparatus morphology appeared to be conserved. A few unusual structural innovations enabled angelfishes to protrude their jaws, close them in the protruded state, and tear food items from the substratum at a high velocity. Only one clade, the speciose pygmy angelfishes, showed functional departure from the generalized and clade-defining grab-and-tearing feeding pattern. By comparing the feeding kinematics of angelfishes with wrasses and parrotfishes (f. Labridae) we showed that grab-and-tearing is based on low kinematics disparity. Regardless of its restricted disparity, the grab-and-tearing feeding apparatus has enabled angelfishes to negotiate ecological thresholds: Given their widely different body sizes, angelfishes can access many structurally complex benthic surfaces that other biters likely are unable to exploit. From these surfaces, angelfishes can dislodge sturdy food items from their tough attachments. Angelfishes thus provide an intriguing example of a successful group that appears to have evolved considerable trophic diversity based on an unusual yet conserved feeding apparatus configuration that is characterized by limited functional disparity.

Unusual kinematics and jaw morphology associated with piscivory in the poeciliid, Belonesox belizanus

Piscivory in fishes is often associated with the evolution of highly elongate jaws that achieve a large mouth opening, or gape. Belonesox belizanus, the pike killifish, has independently evolved this morphology, which is derived from short-jawed poeciliids within the Cyprinodontiformes. Using kinematic analysis of high-speed video footage, we observed a novel aspect of the elongate jaws of Belonesox; the premaxilla rotates dorsally during mouth opening, while the lower jaw rotates ventrally. Anatomical study revealed that this unusual motion is facilitated by the architecture of the premaxillomandibular ligament, prominent within cyprinodontiforms. In Belonesox, it allows force to be transferred from the lower jaw directly to the premaxilla, thereby causing it to rotate dorsally. This dorsal rotation of the premaxilla appears to be assisted by a mediolateral twisting of the maxilla during jaw opening. Twisting maxillae are found in members of the group such as Fundulus, but are lost in Gambusia. Models revealed that elongate jaws partially account for the enlarged gape, but enhanced rotation at the quadrato-mandibular joint was equally important. The large gape is therefore created by: (i) the convergent evolution of elongate jaws; (ii) enhanced jaw rotation, facilitated by loss of a characteristic cyprinodontiform trait, the lip membrane; and (iii) premaxilla rotation in a novel direction, facilitated by the retention and co-option of additional cyprinodontiform traits, the premaxillomandibular ligament and a twisting maxilla.

Stereotypy, flexibility and coordination: key concepts in behavioral functional morphology

Animal movement and its muscular control are central topics in functional morphology. As experimentalists we often manipulate stimuli in a controlled setting or compare species to observe the degree of variation in movement and motor control of particular behaviors. Understanding and communicating the biological significance of these sources of variability requires a universal terminology that is presently lacking in the functional morphology literature. We suggest that `stereotypy' be used to refer to the degree of variability observed in a behavior across trials under a given set of conditions. The ability of an organism to alter its behavior across experimental treatments is referred to as `flexibility'. We discuss how there has been a tendency to confound the phenomenon of a behavior exhibiting low variability, which we refer to as stereotyped, with inflexibility, or the inability to alter the behavior in response to a change in stimulus. The degree of stereotypy and flexibility in a behavior need not be correlated, nor need they have a common underlying basis. Coordination, a term used to describe the relationship between different body parts during movement, can be stereotyped and can show flexibility. Stereotypy of coordination can be assessed by the strength of correlations between movements of two body parts. The influence of coordination coherence on behavioral performance has rarely been considered,and could shed light on how taxa differ in their ability to perform behaviors. We suggest definitions of the terms stereotypy, flexibility and coordination,and provide examples of how and when these terms could be used when discussing behavioral changes in functional morphology.

Fluid dynamics of feeding behaviour in white-spotted bamboo sharks

Although the motor control of feeding is presumed to be generally conserved, some fishes are capable of modulating the feeding behaviour in response to prey type and or prey size. This led to the `feeding modulation hypothesis', which states that rapid suction strikes are pre-programmed stereotyped events that proceed to completion once initiated regardless of sensory input. If this hypothesis holds true, successful strikes should be indistinguishable from unsuccessful strikes owing to a lack of feedback control in specialized suction feeding fishes. The hydrodynamics of suction feeding in white-spotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) was studied in three behaviours: successful strikes, intraoral transports of prey and unsuccessful strikes. The area of the fluid velocity region around the head of feeding sharks was quantified using time-resolved digital particle image velocimetry (DPIV). The maximal size of the fluid velocity region is 56%larger in successful strikes than unsuccessful strikes (10.79 cm2vs 6.90 cm2), but they do not differ in duration,indicating that strikes are modulated based on some aspect of the prey or simply as a result of decreased effort on the part of the predator. The hydrodynamic profiles of successful and unsuccessful strikes differ after 21 ms, a period probably too short to provide time to react through feedback control. The predator-to-prey distance is larger in missed strikes compared with successful strikes, indicating that insufficient suction is generated to compensate for the increased distance. An accuracy index distinguishes unsuccessful strikes (–0.26) from successful strikes (0.45 to 0.61). Successful strikes occur primarily between the horizontal axis of the mouth and the dorsal boundary of the ingested parcel of water, and missed prey are closer to the boundary or beyond. Suction transports are shorter in duration than suction strikes but have similar maximal fluid velocity areas to move the prey through the oropharyngeal cavity into the oesophagus (54 ms vs 67 ms).

Relative importance of growth and behaviour to elasmobranch suction-feeding performance over early ontogeny

Development of the ability to capture prey is crucial to predator survival. Trends in food-capture performance over early ontogeny were quantified for leopard sharks Triakis semifasciata and whitespotted bamboosharks Chiloscyllium plagiosum by measuring suction pressure and flow in front of the mouth during feeding. At any size, C. plagiosum produce greater subambient pressure and ingest more rounded water parcels. Maximum subambient pressure scaled with negative allometry in T. semifasciata and was accompanied by an increase in the time to reach maximum gape. Despite a similar trend in buccal expansion timing, maximum pressure in C. plagiosum scaled with isometry and was accompanied by an earlier onset of hyoid depression and a positive allometric increase in buccal reserve volume. Growth was the primary factor responsible for developmental trends in both species, with size-independent behavioural changes contributing little to overall performance variability. Ontogenetic dietary shifts are predicted for both species as a consequence of size-dependent changes in performance. Chiloscyllium plagiosum becomes anatomically and behaviourally canalized towards suction feeding, limiting the effective range of prey capture and possibly necessitating stalking. Triakis semifasciata, by contrast, retains the flexibility to employ both ram and suction and therefore captures more elusive prey with age.

Coordination of feeding, locomotor and visual systems in parrotfishes(Teleostei: Labridae)

Fishes require complex coordinated motions of the jaws, body and fins during feeding in order to successfully execute the strike or bite and then move away from the predation site. In conjunction with locomotor systems,sensory modalities guide coordinated feeding behavior, with vision playing an important role in many fishes. Although often studied separately, the locomotor, feeding and visual systems have not previously been examined together during fish feeding. To explore feeding coordination, we examined the kinematics of feeding behavior in two species of herbivorous parrotfish, Sparisoma radians and Scarus quoyi, which exhibit different single bite and repetitive bite strategies. Kinematic data on pectoral fin movements and body position show distinctive differences in strategies for the approach and post-strike motion between these species. Sparisoma and Scarus exhibited significant differences in the magnitude of jaw protrusion, time to maximum jaw protrusion, cranial elevation, and order of events in the feeding sequence. Oculomotor data show that both species orient the pupil forward and downward directed at the site of jaw contact until 100 ms before the bite, at which point the visual field is rotated laterally. Combinations of kinematic variables show repeated patterns of synchrony (onset and duration) for the approach to the food (distance, velocity, eye movement),prey capture (eye movement, jaw movement, fin movement) and post-capture maneuvering (fin movement, distance). Kinematic analyses of multiple functional systems reveal coordination mechanisms for detecting and approaching prey and executing the rapid opening and closing of the jaws during acquisition of food. Comparison of the coordination of feeding,swimming and sensory systems among fish species can elucidate alternative coordination strategies involved in herbivory in coral reef fishes.

Cranial movements during suction feeding in teleost fishes: Are they modified to enhance suction production?

Suction is produced during prey capture by most teleost fishes. Here, we ask two questions about the functional basis of suction feeding. First, is there variation in the kinematic pattern produced by different species while suction feeding? Second, do species termed 'suction specialists' demonstrate similar modifications to their feeding behavior? We used 10 kinematic variables in a principal component analysis to identify axes of variation among 14 suction feeding teleost species (representing nine families and five orders within the Euteleostei) that demonstrate different feeding habits and habitats. MANOVA and Tukey post hoc tests were used to assess differences among species. Most species clustered together on the principal component axes, suggesting a generalized mechanism that facilitates unidirectional flow. Typically, only one species stood out as 'extreme' on each functional axis, and a species that stood out on one axis did not stand out on others. Only one species, the flatfish Pleuronichthys verticalis, an obligate benthic feeder, demonstrated modifications consistent with enhanced suction production. This species displayed a suite of changes that should enhance suction production, including large hyoid depression, large cranial rotation, and small gape. We suggest that suction performance may be greatest in such obligate benthic feeders because cranial morphology is highly modified and prey are captured from the substrate.

Prey-capture in Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Teleostei,Pomacanthidae): functional implications of intramandibular joints in marine angelfishes

We examined prey-capture morphology and kinematics in the angelfish, Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Cuvier 1931), to evaluate the magnitude and role of functional specialisation. The feeding apparatus of P. semicirculatus possess three biomechanical mechanisms of particular interest: (1) a novel intramandibular joint, permitting dentary rotation and protruded jaw closure; (2) an opercular linkage facilitating mandible depression; and (3) a suspensorial linkage with two novel points of flexion,permitting anterior rotation of the suspensorium and augmenting mandible protrusion. Prey-capture kinematics were quantified using motion analysis of high-speed video, yielding performance profiles illustrating timing of onset,duration and magnitude of movement in these three biomechanical systems, and other variables traditionally quantified in studies of teleostean ram–suction feeding activity. Mandible depression and suspensorial rotation both augmented mandible protrusion, and coincided during jaw protrusion, typically increasing head length by 30%. Jaw closure appeared to result from contraction of the adductor mandibulae segment A2, which rotated the dentary by approximately 30° relative to the articular. This resulted in jaw closure with the mandible fully depressed and the jaws at peak-protrusion. Feeding events were concluded by a high-velocity jaw retraction (20–50 ms), and completed in 450–750 ms. Feeding kinematics and morphology of Pomacanthus differed from other biting teleosts, and more closely resemble some long-jawed ram–suction feeders. The structural and functional modifications in the Pomacanthusfeeding apparatus are matched to an unusual diet of structurally resilient and firmly attached benthic prey.

The effects of temperature on prey-capture kinematics of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus): implications for feeding studies

Research with ectothermic organisms has demonstrated that temperature is positively correlated with an individual's power output during locomotion. This study investigates the effect of temperature on another aspect of power output, prey-capture kinematics, of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, 1819). Feeding sequences for two treatments of four sunfish were filmed at three temperatures (18, 24, and 30 °C) with one treatment (A) experiencing an increasing range of temperatures and the other (B) experiencing a decreasing temperature range. Directional temperatures affected prey-capture kinematics. The time required to achieve maximum lower jaw depression and maximum gape, as well as the duration of maximum gape, time to close the mouth (from the point of maximum gape), and the total bite duration, increased as water temperature decreased. In addition, both the time to maximum gape and the time to maximum lower jaw depression were longer at 18 °C for individuals in treatment A than those in treatment B. These results indicate that water temperature can bias the results of feeding studies employing kinematics that do not control for its effects as well as those that make comparisons across such studies which utilize different temperatures and taxa.