Mass spectrometric study of in vivo production of advanced glycation end-products/peptides

Antiglycation and antioxidant potential of coumaric acid isomers: a comparative in-vitro study

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are the product of non-enzymatic glycation of serum proteins. AGEs increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, which leads to diabetic complications. Phytochemicals exhibit lesser side effects as compared to conventional therapy. In this study, three isomers of coumaric acid (ortho, meta, para) were used to deduce the better one in terms of reducing diabetic complications. For this purpose, human serum albumin (HSA) was incubated with glucose in the absence and presence of isomers for 28 days. To avoid any growth, NaN3 was added and temperature was kept constant throughout the incubation period. Studies like fluorescence, circular dichroism spectroscopy, fructosamine analysis, free lysine estimation, free thiol group estimation were done. To investigate the ROS production, fluorescence microscopy of isolated lymphocytes using DAPI and dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate were performed. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulations (root-mean-square deviation, root-mean-square fluctuations, radius of gyration and solvent-accessible surface area) of HSA and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) alpha and gamma were also done. It was observed that in glycated protein samples, the level of absorbance, fluorescence, fructosamine and carbonyl group increased along with the loss of secondary structure, free lysine and thiol group. These parameters were found gradually recovered in treated samples. ROS production and apoptosis were found to be reduced in lymphocytes treated with p-Coumaric acid (pCA)-treated protein samples as compared to lymphocyte treated with glycated protein. Computational modelling suggested a stable complex formation of HSA and PPARs with pCA. Results with pCA at 200 µM were consistently better than other two isomers. Our next step is to evaluate this study in rats.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Thirty years of fruitful collaborations between a physician and mass spectrometrists in diabetes field

The nonenzymatic protein glycation and the subsequent formation of advanced glycation end products is a process involved in the long-term complications of diabetes. In this context the collaboration, in the last 30 years, between my research group, operating in the DPT of Medicine of Padua University, and the mass spectrometric group, operating in CNR of Padua, are described and discussed. The development of new mass spectrometric techniques has allowed investigation more indepth, starting from the applications on small molecules responsible for the browning observed in the interactions between sugars and proteins, and growing up to intact proteins as albumin, immunoglobulin, hemoglobin, and so forth, with the determination of their glycation levels as well as their glycation sites. This study has helped to clarify the role of advanced glycation end products in the pathogenesis of the chronic complications of diabetes. In particular the results obtained in diabetic nephropathy, diabetic cardiovascular disease and in placenta samples of patients affected by gestational diabetes are described in this review.

LC-MS Profiling of Kakkonto and Identification of Ephedrine as a Key Component for Its Anti-Glycation Activity

A total of 147 oral Kampo prescriptions, which are used clinically in Japan, were evaluated for their anti-glycation activity. Kakkonto demonstrated significant anti-glycation activity, prompting further analysis of its chemical constituents using LC-MS, which revealed the presence of two alkaloids, fourteen flavonoids, two but-2-enolides, five monoterpenoids, and four triterpenoid glycosides. To identify the components responsible for its anti-glycation activity, the Kakkonto extract was reacted with glyceraldehyde (GA) or methylglyoxal (MGO) and analyzed using LC-MS. In LC-MS analysis of Kakkonto reacted with GA, the peak intensity of ephedrine was attenuated, and three products from ephedrine-scavenging GA were detected. Similarly, LC-MS analysis of Kakkonto reacted with MGO revealed two products from ephedrine reacting with MGO. These results indicated that ephedrine was responsible for the observed anti-glycation activity of Kakkonto. Ephedrae herba extract, which contains ephedrine, also showed strong anti-glycation activity, further supporting ephedrine's contribution to Kakkonto's reactive carbonyl species' scavenging ability and anti-glycation activity.

Glycation reduces the binding dynamics of aflatoxin B1 to human serum albumin: a comprehensive spectroscopic and computational investigation

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a potent mutagen, is synthesized by Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus. Human serum albumin (HSA) is a globular protein with diverse roles. As AFB1 is ingested with food and is transported in the body via blood, it becomes pertinent to comprehend the effect of the binding of this toxin on the structure and conformation of HSA, which may help to get insight into the toxic effect of the exposure of the mycotoxin. In this study, multi-spectroscopic approaches have been used to evaluate the binding efficiency of AFB1 with both the native HSA (nHSA) and the glycated HSA (gHSA). Steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy reveals the static type of fluorescence quenching in the fluorescence emission spectra of nHSA and gHSA in the presence of AFB1. The binding constant (Kb) is calculated to be 6.88 × 104 M-1 for nHSA, while a reduced Kb value of 2.95 × 104 M-1 has been obtained for gHSA. The circular dichroism study confirms the change in the secondary structure of nHSA and gHSA in the presence of AFB1, followed by alterations in the melting temperature (Tm) of nHSA and gHSA. In silico computational findings envisaged the amino acid residues and bonds involved in the binding of nHSA and gHSA with AFB1. The comprehensive study analyzes the binding effectiveness of AFB1 with nHSA and gHSA and shows reduced binding of AFB1 to gHSA.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Multimodal Optical Diagnostics of Glycated Biological Tissues

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia accompanied by the disruption of carbohydrate, lipid, and proteins metabolism and development of long-term microvascular, macrovascular, and neuropathic changes. This review presents the results of spectroscopic studies on the glycation of tissues and cell proteins in organisms with naturally developing and model diabetes and in vitro glycated samples in a wide range of electromagnetic waves, from visible light to terahertz radiation. Experiments on the refractometric measurements of glycated and oxygenated hemoglobin in broad wavelength and temperature ranges using digital holographic microscopy and diffraction tomography are discussed, as well as possible application of these methods in the diabetes diagnostics. It is shown that the development and implementation of multimodal approaches based on a combination of phase diagnostics with other methods is another promising direction in the diabetes diagnostics. The possibilities of using optical clearing agents for monitoring the diffusion of substances in the glycated tissues and blood flow dynamics in the pancreas of animals with induced diabetes have also been analyzed.

Aptasensor based optical detection of glycated albumin for diabetes mellitus diagnosis

Glycated albumin (GA) has been reported as an important biomarker for diabetes mellitus. This study investigates an optical sensor comprised of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) aptamer, semiconductor quantum dot and gold (Au) nanoparticle for the detection of GA. The system functions as a 'turn on' sensor because an increase in photoluminescence intensity is observed upon the addition of GA to the sensor. This is possibly because of the structure of the DNA aptamer, which folds to form a large hairpin loop before the addition of the analyte and is assumed to open up after the addition of target to the sensor in order to bind to GA. This pushes the quantum dot and the Au nanoparticle away causing an increase in photoluminescence. A linear increase in photoluminescence intensity and quenching efficiency of the sensor is observed as the GA concentration is varied between 0-14 500 nM. Time based photoluminescence studies with the sensor show the decrease in binding rate of the aptamer to the target within a specific time period. The sensor was found to have a higher selectivity towards GA than other control proteins. Further investigation of this simple sensor with greater number of clinical samples can open up avenues for an efficient diagnosis and monitoring of diabetes mellitus when used in conjunction with the traditional method of glucose level monitoring.

High-Performance Affinity Chromatography: Applications in Drug-Protein Binding Studies and Personalized Medicine

The binding of drugs with proteins and other agents in serum is of interest in personalized medicine because this process can affect the dosage and action of drugs. The extent of this binding may also vary with a given disease state. These interactions may involve serum proteins, such as human serum albumin or α1-acid glycoprotein, or other agents, such as lipoproteins. High-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) is a tool that has received increasing interest as a means for studying these interactions. This review discusses the general principles of HPAC and the various approaches that have been used in this technique to examine drug-protein binding and in work related to personalized medicine. These approaches include frontal analysis and zonal elution, as well as peak decay analysis, ultrafast affinity extraction, and chromatographic immunoassays. The operation of each method is described and examples of applications for these techniques are provided. The type of information that can be obtained by these methods is also discussed, as related to the analysis of drug-protein binding and the study of clinical or pharmaceutical samples.

Recent topics in chemical and clinical research on glycated albumin

The measuring method for glycated albumin (GA) has been developed as a new glycemic control marker since the beginning of the 21st century. Since GA has an advantage in reflecting glycemic status over a shorter period than hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), much research and many reviews have been reported. However, so far there have been few reports on glycation sites based on the tertiary structure of human serum albumin (HSA) and the comparison of glycation rates between GA and HbA1c in detail. The present review discusses how the glycation sites of lysine residues in HSA are modified with glucose, whereas the glycation sites of lysine residues are located inside of HSA as well as the direct comparison of glycation rates between GA and HbA1c using human blood. Moreover, the most recent clinical researches on GA are described.

Analysis of drug-protein interactions by high-performance affinity chromatography: interactions of sulfonylurea drugs with normal and glycated human serum albumin

High-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) is a type of liquid chromatography that has seen growing use as a tool for the study of drug-protein interactions. This report describes how HPAC can be used to provide information on the number of binding sites, equilibrium constants, and changes in binding that can occur during drug-protein interactions. This approach will be illustrated through recent data that have been obtained by HPAC for the binding of sulfonylurea drugs and other solutes to the protein human serum albumin (HSA), and especially to forms of this protein that have been modified by non-enzymatic glycation. The theory and use of both frontal analysis and zonal elution competition studies in such work will be discussed. Various practical aspects of these experiments will be presented, as well as factors to consider in the extension of these methods to other drugs and proteins or additional types of biological interactions.

Analysis of free drug fractions by ultrafast affinity extraction: interactions of sulfonylurea drugs with normal or glycated human serum albumin

Ultrafast affinity extraction and a multi-dimensional affinity system were developed for measuring free drug fractions at therapeutic levels. This approach was used to compare the free fractions and global affinity constants of several sulfonylurea drugs in the presence of normal human serum albumin (HSA) or glycated forms of this protein, as are produced during diabetes. Affinity microcolumns containing immobilized HSA were first used to extract the free drug fractions in injected drug/protein mixtures. As the retained drug eluted from the HSA microcolumn, it was passed through a second HSA column for further separation and measurement. Items that were considered during the optimization of this approach included the column sizes and flow rates that were used, and the time at which the second column was placed on-line with the HSA microcolumn. This method required only 1.0 μL of a sample per injection and was able to measure free drug fractions as small as 0.09-2.58% with an absolute precision of ±0.02-0.5%. The results that were obtained indicated that glycation can affect the free fractions of sulfonylurea drugs at typical therapeutic levels and that the size of this effect varies with the level of HSA glycation. Global affinity constants that were estimated from these free drug fractions gave good agreement with those predicted from previous binding studies or determined through a reference method. The same approach could be utilized with other drugs and proteins or modified binding agents of clinical or pharmaceutical interest.

Studies of drug interactions with glycated human serum albumin by high-performance affinity chromatography

Diabetes is a health condition associated with elevated levels of glucose in the bloodstream and affects 366 million people worldwide. Type II diabetes is often treated with sulfonylurea drugs, which are known to bind tightly in blood to the transport protein human serum albumin (HSA). One consequence of the elevated levels of glucose in diabetes is the non-enzymatic glycation of proteins such as HSA. Several areas of HSA are now known to be affected by glycation-related modifications, which may in turn affect the binding of sulfonylurea drugs and other solutes to this protein. This review discusses some recent studies that have examined these changes in drug-protein binding by employing high-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC). A description of the theoretical and experimental techniques that were used in these studies is given. The information on drug interactions with glycated HSA, as obtained through this method, is also summarized. In addition, the potential advantages of this approach in the areas of biointeraction analysis and personalized medicine are considered.

Review: Glycation of human serum albumin

Glycation involves the non-enzymatic addition of reducing sugars and/or their reactive degradation products to amine groups on proteins. This process is promoted by the presence of elevated blood glucose concentrations in diabetes and occurs with various proteins that include human serum albumin (HSA). This review examines work that has been conducted in the study and analysis of glycated HSA. The general structure and properties of HSA are discussed, along with the reactions that can lead to modification of this protein during glycation. The use of glycated HSA as a short-to-intermediate term marker for glycemic control in diabetes is examined, and approaches that have been utilized for measuring glycated HSA are summarized. Structural studies of glycated HSA are reviewed, as acquired for both in vivo and in vitro glycated HSA, along with data that have been obtained on the rate and thermodynamics of HSA glycation. In addition, this review considers various studies that have investigated the effects of glycation on the binding of HSA with drugs, fatty acids and other solutes and the potential clinical significance of these effects.

Quantitative analysis of glycation patterns in human serum albumin using 16O/18O-labeling and MALDI-TOF MS

BACKGROUND

The glycation of human serum albumin (HSA) during diabetes can affect the ability of this protein to bind drugs and small solutes in blood. This study describes the use of (16)O/(18)O-labeling and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry to compare the levels of modification that occur throughout HSA under various glycation conditions in vitro. These quantitative studies build on a recent report that has identified the early and advanced glycation products that are formed on such samples of HSA.

METHODS

Glycated HSA samples were prepared by incubating 42 g/l HSA with 0 to 15 mmol/l glucose at pH 7.4 and 37°C for up to 5 weeks. A control HSA sample was digested in (16)O-enriched water and glycated HSA samples were digested in the presence of (18)O-enriched water. These 2 types of samples were then mixed and the amounts of (16)O- vs. (18)O-labeled peptides were measured to determine the levels of modification that were occurring throughout HSA.

RESULTS

The largest levels of modification occurred in residues 101-119, 1-10 or 42-51, 87-100, 360-372, 521-531, and 275-286 of HSA after 2 weeks of glycation, and in residues 21-41, 1-10 or 42-51, 521-531, 82-93, and 146-160 after 5 weeks of glycation. Some of these regions contained the N-terminus, K199, K439, and K525, which have been previously identified as major glycation sites on HSA. The glycation pattern of HSA was dominated by early glycation products (e.g., fructosyl-lysine) after a reaction period of 2 weeks for mildly glycated HSA, while advanced glycation end products became more prominent at longer reaction times.

CONCLUSIONS

The time course of the observed modifications indicated that the pattern of glycation products changed as HSA was incubated over longer periods of time with glucose. Several regions found to have significant levels of modification were at or near the major drug binding regions on HSA. These results explain why the interaction of some drugs with HSA has been observed to vary with the level of glycation for this protein.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: an update for the period 2005-2006

This review is the fourth update of the original review, published in 1999, on the application of MALDI mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2006. The review covers fundamental studies, fragmentation of carbohydrate ions, method developments, and applications of the technique to the analysis of different types of carbohydrate. Specific compound classes that are covered include carbohydrate polymers from plants, N- and O-linked glycans from glycoproteins, glycated proteins, glycolipids from bacteria, glycosides, and various other natural products. There is a short section on the use of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry for the study of enzymes involved in glycan processing, a section on industrial processes, particularly the development of biopharmaceuticals and a section on the use of MALDI-MS to monitor products of chemical synthesis of carbohydrates. Large carbohydrate-protein complexes and glycodendrimers are highlighted in this final section.

Quantitative analysis of glycation sites on human serum albumin using (16)O/(18)O-labeling and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

One of the long term complications of diabetes is the non-enzymatic addition of glucose to proteins in blood, such as human serum albumin (HSA), which leads to the formation of an Amadori product and advanced glycation end products (AGEs). This study uses (16)O/(18)O-labeling and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) to provide quantitative data on the extent of modification that occurs in the presence of glucose at various regions in the structure of minimally glycated HSA.

METHODS

Normal HSA, with no significant levels of glycation, was digested by various proteolytic enzymes in the presence of water, while a similar sample containing in vitro glycated HSA was digested in (18)O-enriched water. These samples were then mixed and the (16)O/(18)O ratios were measured for peptides in each digest. The values obtained for the (16)O/(18)O ratios of the detected peptides for the mixed sample were used to determine the degree of modification that occurred in various regions of glycated HSA.

RESULTS

Peptides containing arginines 114, 81, or 218 and lysines 413, 432, 159, 212, or 323 were found to have (16)O/(18)O ratios greater than a cut off value of 2.0 (i.e., a cut off value based on results noted when using only normal HSA as a reference). A qualitative comparison of the (16)O- and (18)O-labeled digests indicated that lysines 525 and 439 also had significant degrees of modification. The modifications that occurred at these sites were variations of fructosyl-lysine and AGEs which included 1-alkyl-2-formyl-3,4-glycoyl-pyrole and pyrraline.

CONCLUSIONS

Peptides containing arginine 218 and lysines 212, 413, 432, and 439 contained high levels of modification and are also present near the major drug binding sites on HSA. This result is clinically relevant because it suggests the glycation of HSA may alter its ability to bind various drugs and small solutes in blood.

Enrichment and analysis of nonenzymatically glycated peptides: boronate affinity chromatography coupled with electron-transfer dissociation mass spectrometry

Nonenzymatic glycation of peptides and proteins by d-glucose has important implications in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus, particularly in the development of diabetic complications. However, no effective high-throughput methods exist for identifying proteins containing this low-abundance post-translational modification in bottom-up proteomic studies. In this report, phenylboronate affinity chromatography was used in a two-step enrichment scheme to selectively isolate first glycated proteins and then glycated, tryptic peptides from human serum glycated in vitro. Enriched peptides were subsequently analyzed by alternating electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) and collision induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry. ETD fragmentation mode permitted identification of a significantly higher number of glycated peptides (87.6% of all identified peptides) versus CID mode (17.0% of all identified peptides), when utilizing enrichment on first the protein and then the peptide level. This study illustrates that phenylboronate affinity chromatography coupled with LC-MS/MS and using ETD as the fragmentation mode is an efficient approach for analysis of glycated proteins and may have broad application in studies of diabetes mellitus.

Off-line liquid chromatography-MALDI by with various matrices and tandem mass spectrometry for analysis of glycated human serum albumin tryptic peptides

Advanced glycation end-product (AGE)/peptides, arising from in vivo digestion of glycated proteins, are biologically important compounds, due to their reactivity against circulating and tissue proteins. For information on their possible structure, in vitro glycation of HSA and its further enzymatic digestion were performed. The resulting digestion product mixture was analysed directly by MALDI MS with various matrices [2,5-dihydroxy benzoic acid (DHB) and alpha-cyano-4-hydroxy cinnamic acid (CHCA)]. Alternatively, offline microbore LC prior to MALDI analysis was used, and showed that 63% of the free amino groups prone to glycation are modified, indicating the contemporary presence of unglycated peptides. This result proves that, regardless of the high glucose concentration employed for HSA incubation, glycation does not go to completion. Further studies showed that the collisionally activated decomposition of singly charged glycated peptides leads to specific fragmentation pathways, all related to the condensed glucose molecule. These unique product ions can be used as effective markers to establish the presence of a glucose molecule within a peptide ion.

Application of electron transfer dissociation mass spectrometry in analyses of non-enzymatically glycated peptides

Non-enzymatic glycation of peptides and proteins by D-glucose has important implications in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus, particularly in the context of development of diabetic complications. The fragmentation behavior of glycated peptides produced from reaction of D-glucose with lysine residues was investigated by electron transfer dissociation (ETD) and collision-induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry. It was found that high abundance ions corresponding to various degrees of neutral water losses, as well as furylium ion production, dominate the CID spectra, and that the sequence-informative b and y ions were rarely observed when Amadori-modified peptides were fragmented. Contrary to what was observed under CID conditions, ions corresponding to neutral losses of water or furylium ion production were not observed in the ETD spectra. Instead, abundant and almost complete series of c- and z-type ions were observed regardless of whether the modification site was located in the middle of the sequence or close to the N-terminus, greatly facilitating the peptide sequencing. This study strongly suggests that ETD is a better technique for proteomic studies of non-enzymatically glycated peptides and proteins.

Comprehensive analysis of glycated human serum albumin tryptic peptides by off-line liquid chromatography followed by MALDI analysis on a time-of-flight/curved field reflectron tandem mass spectrometer

Glycated peptides arising from in vivo digestion of glycated proteins, usually called advanced glycation end (AGE) product peptides, are biologically relevant compounds due to their reactivity towards circulating and tissue proteins. To investigate their structures, in vitro glycation of human serum albumin (HSA) has been performed and followed by enzymatic digestion. Using different MALDI based approaches the digestion products obtained have been compared with those arising from enzymatic digestion of the protein. Results obtained using 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) indicate this as the most effective matrix, leading to an increase in the coverage of the glycated protein. Off-line microbore liquid chromatography prior to MALDI analysis reveals that 63% of the free amino groups amenable to glycation are modified. In addition, the same approach shows the co-presence of underivatised peptides. This indicates that, regardless of the high glucose concentration employed for HSA incubation, glycation does not go to completion. Tandem mass spectrometric data suggest that the collision induced dissociation of singly charged glycated peptides leads to specific fragmentation pathways related to the condensed glucose molecule. The specific neutral losses derived from the activated glycated peptides can be used as signature for establishing the occurrence of glycation processes.

Mass spectrometry of advanced glycation end products

Mass spectrometry, in particular matrix assisted laser desorption/ionisation, is a powerful analytical tool in studies devoted to protein non-enzymatic glycation. It has been firstly tested on in vitro glycated proteins, and looking at the reliable results so obtained, on in vivo glycated proteins in population of healthy, well-controlled and badly controlled diabetic patients. The comparison of the data so obtained in case of human serum albumin and IgG unequivocally demonstrates the highest glycation level for the third set of subjects. Further results obtained in the case of hemoglobin glycation showed that both alpha and beta globins are glycated in a similar extent and that the method can be employed to investigate on the "oxidative stress" experimented by the patients.