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Danielsen M, Kempen PJ, Andresen TL, Urquhart AJ. Formulation and characterization of insulin nanoclusters for a controlled release. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 235:123658. [PMID: 36822285 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
The growing interest in biopharmaceuticals combined with the challenges regarding formulation and delivery continues to encourage the development of new and improved formulations of this class of therapeutics. Nanoclusters (NCs) represent a type of formulation strategy where the biopharmaceutical is clustered in a reversible manner to function as both the therapeutic and the vehicle. In this study, insulin NCs (INCs) were formulated by a new methodology of first crosslinking proteins followed by desolvation. Crosslinking of the protein with the reducible DTSSP crosslinker improved control of the INC synthesis process to give INCs with a mean size of 198 ± 7 nm and a mean zeta potential of -39 ± 1 mV. Crosslinking and clustering of insulin did not induce cytotoxicity or major differences in the biological activity compared to the free unmodified protein. The potency of the crosslinked insulin and the INCs appeared slightly lower than that of the unmodified protein, and significantly higher doses of the INCs compared to the free protein were applied to achieve similar blood sugar lowering effects in vivo. Interestingly, the INCs allowed for high doses to be subcutaneously delivered with prolonged efficacy without being lethal in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Danielsen
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Paul Joseph Kempen
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; National Centre for Nano Fabrication and Characterization, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas Lars Andresen
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andrew James Urquhart
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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2
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Desai M, Kundu A, Hageman M, Lou H, Boisvert D. Monoclonal antibody and protein therapeutic formulations for subcutaneous delivery: high-concentration, low-volume vs. low-concentration, high-volume. MAbs 2023; 15:2285277. [PMID: 38013454 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2023.2285277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Biologic drugs are used to treat a variety of cancers and chronic diseases. While most of these treatments are administered intravenously by trained healthcare professionals, a noticeable trend has emerged favoring subcutaneous (SC) administration. SC administration of biologics poses several challenges. Biologic drugs often require higher doses for optimal efficacy, surpassing the low volume capacity of traditional SC delivery methods like autoinjectors. Consequently, high concentrations of active ingredients are needed, creating time-consuming formulation obstacles. Alternatives to traditional SC delivery systems are therefore needed to support higher-volume biologic formulations and to reduce development time and other risks associated with high-concentration biologic formulations. Here, we outline key considerations for SC biologic drug formulations and delivery and explore a paradigm shift: the flexibility afforded by low-to-moderate-concentration drugs in high-volume formulations as an alternative to the traditionally difficult approach of high-concentration, low-volume SC formulation delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Desai
- Medical Affairs, Enable Injections, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - A Kundu
- Manufacturing Sciences, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Brooklyn Park, MN, USA
| | - M Hageman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - H Lou
- Biopharmaceutical Innovation & Optimization Center, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - D Boisvert
- Independent Chemistry Manufacturing & Controls (CMC) Consultant, El Cerrito, CA, USA
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3
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Zarzar J, Khan T, Bhagawati M, Weiche B, Sydow-Andersen J, Alavattam S. High concentration formulation developability approaches and considerations. MAbs 2023; 15:2211185. [PMID: 37191233 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2023.2211185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The growing need for biologics to be administered subcutaneously and ocularly, coupled with certain indications requiring high doses, has resulted in an increase in drug substance (DS) and drug product (DP) protein concentrations. With this increase, more emphasis must be placed on identifying critical physico-chemical liabilities during drug development, including protein aggregation, precipitation, opalescence, particle formation, and high viscosity. Depending on the molecule, liabilities, and administration route, different formulation strategies can be used to overcome these challenges. However, due to the high material requirements, identifying optimal conditions can be slow, costly, and often prevent therapeutics from moving rapidly into the clinic/market. In order to accelerate and derisk development, new experimental and in-silico methods have emerged that can predict high concentration liabilities. Here, we review the challenges in developing high concentration formulations, the advances that have been made in establishing low mass and high-throughput predictive analytics, and advances in in-silico tools and algorithms aimed at identifying risks and understanding high concentration protein behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Zarzar
- Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Tarik Khan
- Pharma Technical Development Europe, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maniraj Bhagawati
- Large Molecule Research, Pharma Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Penzberg, Germany
| | - Benjamin Weiche
- Large Molecule Research, Pharma Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Penzberg, Germany
| | - Jasmin Sydow-Andersen
- Large Molecule Research, Pharma Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Penzberg, Germany
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4
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Danielsen M, Hempel C, Andresen TL, Urquhart AJ. Biopharmaceutical nanoclusters: Towards the self-delivery of protein and peptide therapeutics. J Control Release 2022; 347:282-307. [PMID: 35513210 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.04.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Protein and peptide biopharmaceuticals have had a major impact on the treatment of a number of diseases. There is a growing interest in overcoming some of the challenges associated with biopharmaceuticals, such as rapid degradation in physiological fluid, using nanocarrier delivery systems. Biopharmaceutical nanoclusters (BNCs) where the therapeutic protein or peptide is clustered together to form the main constituent of the nanocarrier system have the potential to mimic the benefits of more established nanocarriers (e.g., liposomal and polymeric systems) whilst eliminating the issue of low drug loading and potential side effects from additives. These benefits would include enhanced stability, improved absorption, and increased biopharmaceutical activity. However, the successful development of BNCs is challenged by the physicochemical complexity of the protein and peptide constituents as well as the dynamics of clustering. Here, we present and discuss common methodologies for the synthesis of therapeutic protein and peptide nanoclusters, as well as review the current status of this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Danielsen
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Casper Hempel
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas L Andresen
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andrew J Urquhart
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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5
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Li X, Zhou Q, Ma L, Chen K, Yin P. Polymer-templated supramolecular co-assemblies of proteins and metal oxide clusters as versatile platform for chemo-enzymatic catalysis. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 594:874-881. [PMID: 33794409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.03.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The hybridization of enzymes and inorganics in controlled manner is challenging, however, critical for the development of chemo-enzymatic cascade catalyst with high efficiency and selectivity. Here, proteins and metal oxide clusters can be facilely co-assembled on the surface of colloid of poly(4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP) via hydrogen bonding, due to their enriched surface hydrogen bonding donors. The co-assembly method can be generally applied for preparing chemo-enzymatic catalyst within the selected database of various proteins and metal oxide clusters while the assembly units retain their structures and activities. Typically, a 2.5 nm metal oxide cluster {Mo72Fe30}, with peroxidase-like activity, are complexed with glucose oxidase (GOX) on P4VP for the catalysis against the oxidization of o-dianisidine (ODA) with the existence of glucose. Due to the synergistic effects of chemical and enzymatic catalysis, the co-assemblies show even higher ODA oxidation activity compared to GOX/catalase bi-enzymatic system, confirming the effectiveness of the co-assembly protocol for cascade catalysis and enabling its applications in rapid glucose detection and biomass conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinpei Li
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology & State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Qianjie Zhou
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology & State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Litao Ma
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology & State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Kun Chen
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology & State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Panchao Yin
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology & State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China.
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6
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Panhwar S, Ilhan H, Hassan SS, Zengin A, Boyacı IH, Tamer U. Dual Responsive Disposable Electrode for the Enumeration of
Escherichia coli
in Whole Blood. ELECTROANAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202060185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sallahuddin Panhwar
- Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy Gazi University, Etiler 06330 Ankara Turkey
- U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Water (US-PCAS-W) Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76062 Sindh Pakistan
| | - Hasan Ilhan
- Department of Chemistry Faculty of Science Ordu University, Altinordu 52200 Ordu Turkey
| | - Syeda Sara Hassan
- U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Water (US-PCAS-W) Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76062 Sindh Pakistan
| | - Adem Zengin
- Van Yüzüncü Yil University Department of Chemical Engineering 65090 Tuşba/Van Turkey
| | - Ismail Hakkı Boyacı
- Department of Food Engineering Faculty of Engineering Hacettepe University, Beytepe 06800 Ankara Turkey
| | - Ugur Tamer
- Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy Gazi University, Etiler 06330 Ankara Turkey
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7
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High-throughput analysis of sub-visible mAb aggregate particles using automated fluorescence microscopy imaging. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:4149-4156. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0362-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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8
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Borwankar AU, Dear BJ, Twu A, Hung JJ, Dinin AK, Wilson BK, Yue J, Maynard JA, Truskett TM, Johnston KP. Viscosity Reduction of a Concentrated Monoclonal Antibody with Arginine·HCl and Arginine·Glutamate. Ind Eng Chem Res 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.6b02042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ameya U. Borwankar
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Barton J. Dear
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - April Twu
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jessica J. Hung
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Aileen K. Dinin
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Brian K. Wilson
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jingyan Yue
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jennifer A. Maynard
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Thomas M. Truskett
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Keith P. Johnston
- McKetta Department of Chemical
Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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9
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Nguyen AW, Wagner EK, Laber JR, Goodfield LL, Smallridge WE, Harvill ET, Papin JF, Wolf RF, Padlan EA, Bristol A, Kaleko M, Maynard JA. A cocktail of humanized anti-pertussis toxin antibodies limits disease in murine and baboon models of whooping cough. Sci Transl Med 2015; 7:316ra195. [PMID: 26631634 PMCID: PMC5075433 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aad0966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Despite widespread vaccination, pertussis rates are rising in industrialized countries and remain high worldwide. With no specific therapeutics to treat disease, pertussis continues to cause considerable infant morbidity and mortality. The pertussis toxin is a major contributor to disease, responsible for local and systemic effects including leukocytosis and immunosuppression. We humanized two murine monoclonal antibodies that neutralize pertussis toxin and expressed them as human immunoglobulin G1 molecules with no loss of affinity or in vitro neutralization activity. When administered prophylactically to mice as a binary cocktail, antibody treatment completely mitigated the Bordetella pertussis-induced rise in white blood cell counts and decreased bacterial colonization. When administered therapeutically to baboons, antibody-treated, but not untreated control animals, experienced a blunted rise in white blood cell counts and accelerated bacterial clearance rates. These preliminary findings support further investigation into the use of these antibodies to treat human neonatal pertussis in conjunction with antibiotics and supportive care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalee W. Nguyen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
| | - Ellen K. Wagner
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
| | - Joshua R. Laber
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
| | - Laura L. Goodfield
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - William E. Smallridge
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Eric T. Harvill
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - James F. Papin
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Roman F. Wolf
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Eduardo A. Padlan
- The Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
| | - Andy Bristol
- Synthetic Biologics, 9605 Medical Center Dr. Suite 270, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Michael Kaleko
- Synthetic Biologics, 9605 Medical Center Dr. Suite 270, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Jennifer A. Maynard
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
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10
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Park JI, Nguyen TD, de Queirós Silveira G, Bahng JH, Srivastava S, Zhao G, Sun K, Zhang P, Glotzer SC, Kotov NA. Terminal supraparticle assemblies from similarly charged protein molecules and nanoparticles. Nat Commun 2014; 5:3593. [PMID: 24845400 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-assembly of proteins and inorganic nanoparticles into terminal assemblies makes possible a large family of uniformly sized hybrid colloids. These particles can be compared in terms of utility, versatility and multifunctionality to other known types of terminal assemblies. They are simple to make and offer theoretical tools for designing their structure and function. To demonstrate such assemblies, we combine cadmium telluride nanoparticles with cytochrome C protein and observe spontaneous formation of spherical supraparticles with a narrow size distribution. Such self-limiting behaviour originates from the competition between electrostatic repulsion and non-covalent attractive interactions. Experimental variation of supraparticle diameters for several assembly conditions matches predictions obtained in simulations. Similar to micelles, supraparticles can incorporate other biological components as exemplified by incorporation of nitrate reductase. Tight packing of nanoscale components enables effective charge and exciton transport in supraparticles and bionic combination of properties as demonstrated by enzymatic nitrate reduction initiated by light absorption in the nanoparticle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jai Il Park
- 1] Departments of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [2] [3]
| | - Trung Dac Nguyen
- 1] Departments of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [2]
| | | | - Joong Hwan Bahng
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Sudhanshu Srivastava
- Departments of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Gongpu Zhao
- Department of Structural Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Kai Sun
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Peijun Zhang
- Department of Structural Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Sharon C Glotzer
- 1] Departments of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [2] Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [3] Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48019, USA
| | - Nicholas A Kotov
- 1] Departments of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [2] Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [3] Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA [4] Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48019, USA
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11
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Johnson HR, Lenhoff AM. Characterization and suitability of therapeutic antibody dense phases for subcutaneous delivery. Mol Pharm 2013; 10:3582-91. [PMID: 24011376 DOI: 10.1021/mp400006g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Subcutaneous antibody dosing formulations comprising solid suspensions have the potential to reduce dosage viscosity and injection volume. Gel beads of three therapeutic antibodies were prepared to determine the feasibility of such formulations. The beads were formed directly from aqueous solution within 0.1-4 days upon addition of biocompatible precipitating agents under conditions compatible with the use of stabilizing excipients. The phase behavior of antibody gel beads and their mechanical characteristics were measured. Gel beads were characterized by reduced elastic moduli of 0.4-1.0 MPa, as measured by atomic force microscopy, and completely redissolved within 10-20 min under physiologic conditions, in vitro. Crystalline particles could also be prepared in some cases and were found to have reduced elastic moduli 3 orders of magnitude greater than those for the gel beads. Both crystalline and gel particles had protein concentrations of 100-180 mg/mL within the dense phase. Protein stored within the dense phase was recoverable after 40 days of incubation at room temperature or 4 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harvey R Johnson
- Center for Molecular and Engineering Thermodynamics, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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12
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Miller MA, Rodrigues MA, Glass MA, Singh SK, Johnston KP, Maynard JA. Frozen-state storage stability of a monoclonal antibody: aggregation is impacted by freezing rate and solute distribution. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:1194-208. [PMID: 23400717 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Freezing of protein solutions perturbs protein conformation, potentially leading to aggregate formation during long-term storage in the frozen state. Macroscopic protein concentration profiles in small cylindrical vessels were determined for a monoclonal antibody frozen in a trehalose-based formulation for various freezing protocols. Slow cooling rates led to concentration differences between outer edges of the tank and the center, up to twice the initial concentration. Fast cooling rates resulted in much smaller differences in protein distribution, likely due to the formation of dendritic ice, which traps solutes in micropockets, limiting their transport by convection and diffusion. Analysis of protein stability after more than 6 months storage at either -10°C or -20°C [above glass transition temperature (T'g )] or -80°C (below T'g ) revealed that aggregation correlated with the cooling rate. Slow-cooled vessels stored above T'g exhibited increased aggregation with time. In contrast, fast-cooled vessels and those stored below T'g showed small to no increase in aggregation at any position. Rapid entrapment of protein in a solute matrix by fast freezing results in improved stability even when stored above T'g . © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci 102:1194-1208, 2013.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Miller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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