Effect of probiotics on patulin removal from synbiotic apple juice

Patulin-degrading enzymes sources, structures, and mechanisms: A review

Patulin (PAT), a fungal secondary metabolite with multiple toxicities, is an unavoidable contaminant in fruit and vegetable processing, posing potential health risks to consumers and causing significant economic losses to the global food industry. Traditional control strategies, such as physical and chemical methods, face several challenges, including low efficiency, high costs, and unverified safety. In contrast, microbial degradation of patulin is considered a more efficient and environmentally friendly approach, which has become a popular research focus. However, there is still insufficient research on the key degradation enzymes involved in microorganisms. Therefore, this review comprehensively summarizes recent research progress on the biological degradation of patulin, with a focus on microbial species capable of degrading patulin, the degradation enzymes they express, potential degradation mechanisms, and the toxicity of degradation products, while providing prospects for future research. It offers valuable insights for controlling patulin in food and stimulates further investigation. Ultimately, this review aims to promote the development of efficient and eco-friendly methods to mitigate patulin contamination in fruits and vegetables.

Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus encapsulated cross-linked Keratin-Chitosan hydrogel for removal of patulin from apple juice

In this study, we developed a hydrogel from cross-linked keratin and chitosan (KC) to remove patulin (PAT) from apple juice. We explored the potential of incorporating Lactobacillus rhamnoses into the KC hydrogel (KC-LR) and tested its effectiveness in removing PAT from simulated juice solutions and real apple juice. The KC hydrogel was developed through a dynamic disulfide cross-linking reaction. This cross-linked hydrogel network provided excellent stability for the probiotic cells, achieving 99.9 % immobilization efficiency. In simulated juice with 25 mg/L PAT, the KC and KC-LR hydrogels showed removal efficiencies of 85.2 % and 97.68 %, respectively, using 15 mg mL-1 of the prepared hydrogel at a temperature of 25 °C for 6 h. The KC and KC-LR hydrogels achieved 76.3 % and 83.6 % removal efficiencies in real apple juice systems, respectively. Notably, the encapsulated probiotics did not negatively impact the juice quality and demonstrated reusability for up to five cycles of the PAT removal process.

Emerging mycotoxins and preventive strategies related to gut microbiota changes: probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics - a systematic review

Recent research has focused on the involvement of the gut microbiota in various diseases, where probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics (PPSP) exert beneficial effects through modulation of the microbiome. This systematic review aims to provide insight into the interplay among emerging mycotoxins, gut microbiota, and PPSP. The review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. In this review, unregulated yet highly recurrent mycotoxins are classified as emerging mycotoxins. The most frequently observed mycotoxins included those from the Fusarium genus-enniatins (n = 11) and beauvericin (n = 11)-and the Alternaria genus-alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxin, and tentoxin (n = 10). Among probiotics, the most studied genera were Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Inulin and cellulose were the most found prebiotics. Data on synbiotics and postbiotics are scarce. Studies have shown that both the gut microbiota and PPSP can detoxify and mitigate the harmful effects of emerging mycotoxins. PPSP not only reduced mycotoxin bioaccessibility, but also counteracted their detrimental effects by activating health-promoting pathways such as short-chain fatty acid production, genoprotection, and reduction of oxidative stress. However, both quantitative and qualitative data remain limited, indicating a need for further in vivo and long-term studies. The formulation of PPSP as functional foods, feeds, or nutraceuticals should be considered a preventive strategy against the toxicity of emerging mycotoxins, for which, there is no established regulatory framework.

Adsorption Characterization of Lactobacillus sp. for Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the widely detected plasticizer in foods whose exposure is associated with a myriad of human disorders. The present study focused on identifying Lactobacillus strains with high adsorption potential towards DEHP and further elucidating the mechanism of binding using HPLC, FTIR and SEM. Two strains, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactobacillus plantarum MTCC 25,433, were found to rapidly adsorb more than 85% of DEHP in 2 h. Binding potential remained unaffected by heat treatment. Moreover, acid pre-treatment enhanced the DEHP adsorption. Chemical pre-treatments, such as NaIO4, pronase E or lipase, caused reduction in DEHP adsorption to 46% (LGG), 49% (MTCC 25,433) and 62% (MTCC 25,433), respectively, attributing it to cell wall polysaccharides, proteins and lipids. This was also corroborated by stretching vibrations of C = O, N-H, C-N and C-O functional groups. Furthermore, SDS and urea pre-treatment, demonstrated the crucial role of hydrophobic interactions in DEHP adsorption. The extracted peptidoglycan from LGG and MTCC 25,433 adsorbed 45% and 68% of DEHP, respectively, revealing the imperative role of peptidoglycan and its integrity in DEHP adsorption. These findings indicated that DEHP removal was based on physico-chemical adsorption and cell wall proteins, polysaccharides or peptidoglycan played a primary role in its adsorption. Owing to the high binding efficiency, L. rhamnosus GG and L. plantarum MTCC 25,433 were considered to be a potential detoxification strategy to mitigate the risk associated with the consumption of DEHP-contaminated foods.

The Role of Probiotics in Improving Food Safety: Inactivation of Pathogens and Biological Toxins

Currently, many advances have been made in avoiding food contamination by numerous pathogenic and toxigenic microorganisms. Many studies have shown that different probiotics, in addition to having beneficial effects on the host's health, have a very good ability to eliminate and neutralize pathogens and their toxins in foods which leads to enhanced food safety. The present review purposes to comprehensively discuss the role of probiotics in improving food safety by inactivating pathogens (bacterial, fungal, viral, and parasite agents) and neutralizing their toxins in food products. Some recent examples in terms of the anti-microbial activities of probiotics in the body after consuming contaminated food have also been mentioned. This review shows that different probiotics have the potential to inactivate pathogens and neutralize and detoxify various biological agents in foods, as well as in the host body after consumption.

Impact of simulated microgravity on bioremoval of heavy-metals by Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 from water

There are several reports about the effect of gravity removal on some characteristics of microorganisms due to possible change in surface layer thickness and adherence properties. In this study, bioremoval efficiency of Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 from water under simulated microgravity conditions was investigated. Furthermore, pretreatment effects (untreated, NaOH, and heat pretreated) of L. acidophilus ATCC 4356 on heavy metal removal was evaluated on microgravity, as our previous research showed impact of pretreatment on adherence properties of probiotics to environmental metals. The results showed that ability of L. acidophilus for arsenic adsorption enhanced following heat-pretreatment in simulated and normal gravity. Moreover, in both conditions of simulated microgravity and normal gravity NaOH-treated L. acidophilus increased the removal of cadmium and lead. In none of the conditions, pretreatment of lactobacillus affects mercury removal. Evaluation of stability of binding of L. acidophilus-heavy metal was investigated to check irreversibility of complex formation between microorganisms and metals in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Data showed release of heavy metals from complex in normal gravity. Obtained results of this research show the favorable potential of simulated microgravity condition to increase bioremoval capacity of L. acidophilus for heavy metals.

The importance and mitigation of mycotoxins and plant toxins in Southeast Asian fermented foods

Fermented foods (ffs) and beverages are widely consumed in Southeast Asia (SEA) for their nutritional balance, flavor, and food security. They serve as vehicles for beneficial microorganisms performing a significant role in human health. However, there are still major challenges concerning the safety of ffs and beverages due to the presence of natural toxins. In this review, the common toxins found in traditional ffs in SEA are discussed with special reference to mycotoxins and plant toxins. Also, mitigation measures for preventing risks associated with their consumption are outlined. Ochratoxin, citrinin, aflatoxins were reported to be major mycotoxins present in SEA ffs. In addition, soybean-based ff food products were more vulnerable to mycotoxin contaminations. Common plant toxins recorded in ffs include cyanogenic glycosides, oxalates, phytates and saponins. Combined management strategies such as pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest control and decontamination, through the integration of different control methods such as the use of clean seeds, biological control methods, fermentation, appropriate packaging systems, and controlled processing conditions are needed for the safe consumption of indigenous ffs in SEA.

Potential probiotic strains with heavy metals and mycotoxins bioremoval capacity for application in foodstuffs

Heavy metals and mycotoxins in foodstuffs are one of the major concerns of our world nowadays. Food decontamination with the help of microbial biomass is a cheap, easy, efficient, and green method known as bioremoval. Probiotics are able to reduce the availability of heavy metals and toxins in food products. The purpose of this review is to summarize the probiotics and potential probiotics' interesting role in food bio-decontamination. After a brief glance at the definition of potential probiotic strains with bioremoval ability, LABs (lactic acid bacteria) are described as they are the most important groups of probiotics. After that, the role of the main probiotic and potential probiotic strains (Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Enterococcus, Bifidobacterium, Pediococcus, Propionibacterium, Streptococcus, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) for heavy metals and mycotoxins bioremoval are described. Additionally, the bioremoval mechanism and the effect of some factors in bioremoval efficiency are explained. Finally, the investigations about probiotic and contaminant stability are mentioned. It is worth mentioning that this review article can be exerted in different food and beverage industries to eliminate the heavy metals and mycotoxins in foodstuffs.

Reduction the contamination of patulin during the brewing of apple cider and its characteristics

Patulin is one of the most significant food safety problems in fruit and derived products. The reduction of patulin contamination in food processing has always been the focus of research. In this study, nine yeast strains were applied for the brewing of apple cider and the fate of patulin was determined. In this process, the patulin contamination can be decreased by adsorption onto and degradation of yeast cells in the main fermentation (20.8-49.1%), as well as the adsorption removal during clarification (18.7-58%), inverted cans (21.3-31.4%) and aging (1.0-5.8%). Saccharomyces cerevisiae (1027) was selected to reveal the elimination mechanism of patulin in main fermentation. The decrease of patulin content was mainly due to degradation and the intracellular enzymes played a more important role than extracellular ones. In addition, the synthesis of enzymes was related to the induction of patulin. Furthermore, the degradation product of patulin in the main fermentation was identified as E-ascladiol, which is less toxic than patulin. Based on the representative strain of S. cerevisiae 1027, patulin contamination can be effectively eliminated during apple cider brewing. This study provides a new insight into eliminating patulin contamination in the brewing of apple cider.

Detoxification approaches of mycotoxins: by microorganisms, biofilms and enzymes

Mycotoxins are generally found in food, feed, dairy products, and beverages, subsequently presenting serious human and animal health problems. Not surprisingly, mycotoxin contamination has been a worldwide concern for many research studies. In this regard, many biological, chemical, and physical approaches were investigated to reduce and/or remove contamination from food and feed products. Biological detoxification processes seem to be the most promising approaches for mycotoxins removal from food. The current review details the newest progress in biological detoxification (adsorption and metabolization) through microorganisms, their biofilms, and enzymatic degradation, finally describing the detoxification mechanism of many mycotoxins by some microorganisms. This review also reports the possible usage of microorganisms as mycotoxins’ binders in various food commodities, which may help produce mycotoxins-free food and feed.

Application of prebiotics in apple products and potential health benefits

Among the fruits, the apple stands out among the most used for elaboration of processed foods. However, the importance of prebiotics in apple products has never been widely analyzed. Prebiotic is a food component resistant to gastric acidity, digestion by mammalian enzymes and gastrointestinal absorption. But following fermentation in the colon, prebiotics result in specific changes in the composition and / or metabolism of the gastrointestinal microbiota, conferring benefits to the health of the host. Therefore, fortifying apple-based products with additional prebiotics is an important strategy for improving consumer health benefits. In this review, after compiling and analyzing scientific and technological studies focusing on prebiotics in apple products, the following benefits of these prebiotics became evident: (1) reduction of water loss in the food matrix; (2) preservation of bioactive and volatile compounds; (3) texture improvement (thickening) in the food industry; (4) increased shelf-live and (5) increased survival of probiotic bacteria, promoting positive effects on microbiota. In addition, this review shows the benefits of different prebiotics for stability and sensory acceptance of apple processed foods.

Diazinon reduction in apple juice using probiotic bacteria during fermentation and storage under refrigeration

The main objective of this work was to study the effects of probiotic strains, probiotic primary inoculated population, concentrations of spiked diazinon, physiology of probiotic bacteria, fermentation times, and cold storage period in six consecutive stages on diazinon reduction in apple juice. Chemical properties (pH, total acidity, and sugar content), probiotic viability, and diazinon reduction percent were monitored during fermentation and cold storage. Dispersive solid phase extraction (dSPE) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to extract and measure diazinon concentration. Results showed that Lactobacillus acidophilus revealed the highest ability to reduce diazinon in apple juice after fermentation. Inoculation of L. acidophilus at 9 log CFU/mL showed significantly higher diazinon reducing ability than 7 log CFU/mL. L. acidophilus reduced diazinon in apple juice samples containing 1000 μg/L of spiked diazinon significantly higher than those containing 5000 μg/L. Heat-killed (dead) L. acidophilus bacteria reduced less diazinon content at the end of fermentation than viable bacteria. Furthermore, 72 h of fermentation was more effective in diazinon reduction. Spiked diazinon is completely disappeared at the end of cold storage (28 days) in treatments containing L. acidophilus, while the viability of probiotic bacteria required for causing health-promoting properties was maintained in apple juice.

Role of the lactobacilli in food bio-decontamination: Friends with benefits

Food contamination such as toxins and heavy metals has been increasing in the last few decades as a result of industrialization in general and as part of food production in particular. Application of microorganisms in toxins and heavy metals bio-removal has been documented and applied as a favorable decontamination approach due to being environmentally friendly, reasonably simple, and economically feasible. Lactobacilli have been proposed and applied as a beneficial biologic sorbent for toxins and heavy metals in processes of reducing their hazardous bio-availability. The purpose of this review is to summarize the known role of Lactobacillus bacterial species in food bio-decontamination processes. After a quick glimpse of the worthy properties of lactobacilli, their cell wall structure is mentioned. Then the potential role of Lactobacillus strains for mycotoxins (aflatoxins, patulin, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, cyanotoxins, and trichothecenes) and heavy metals (lead, arsenic copper, mercury, cadmium, zinc, aluminum, chromium, and iron) bio-removal were described. In addition, the role of various factors in removal yield and the decontamination mechanism were explained. Finally, the lactobacilli-contaminant stability, in vivo studies, and being a friend or foe of Lactobacillus bacteria are discussed.

Effects of Pretreatments on Patulin Removal from Apple Juices Using Lactobacilli: Binding Stability in Simulated Gastrointestinal Condition and Modeling

Recently, researchers have reported the presence of patulin as a mycotoxin in commercial apple products, especially apple juices. The aim of this study was to assess adsorption of patulin from artificially contaminated apple juice using two lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains of Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 and Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014. Furthermore, effects of five physical and chemical pretreatments on the patulin adsorption were investigated. Results demonstrated that patulin adsorption abilities of both strains increased with NaOH pretreatment but decreased after autoclaving. The NaOH-treated L. plantarum ATCC 8014 showed the best removal rate (59.74%) after 48 h of refrigerated storage, compared with the NaOH-treated L. acidophilus ATCC 4356 (52.36%). Moreover, stability of the LAB-patulin complex was assessed in simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions and a low quantity of patulin was released into the solution. The patulin adsorption process by NaOH-treated L. plantarum ATCC 8014 followed Freundlich isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that polysaccharide and protein components of the L. plantarum ATCC 8014 cell wall played key roles in patulin adsorption. The major functional groups of the cell wall that were involved in adsorbing patulin included -OH/-NH, -CH₂, C=O, and C-O groups. The current results suggest that NaOH-treated L. plantarum ATCC 8014 cells include the potential to detoxify patulin-contaminated apple juices.

Zearalenone Adsorbent Based on a Lyophilized Indigenous Bacterial Lactobacillus plantarum Strain as Feed Additive for Pigs: A Preliminary Study In Vivo

Feed contamination with naturally occurring mycotoxins is an unavoidable condition of significant concern in intensive productions. The presence of high concentrations of zearalenone >1 ppm in the diet can cause major reproductive disorders, particularly in swine. In order to reduce the consequences of intoxication, mycotoxin adsorbents are incorporated into feed. In the present study, zearalenone adsorption capacity of a lyophilized indigenous strain of Lactobacillus plantarum (L4; previously isolated from pig's rectal swabs) was first evaluated in vitro. A preliminary study in vivo was then performed in which the indigenous Lactobacillus plantarum strain was lyophilized and the powder obtained (L-L4) was incorporated into the diet of gilts two gilts received basal diet (control) and two received basal diet containing 2 g/kg L-L4 (treated). After an adaptation period, all the feed was contaminated with zearalenone at a dose of 0.93 mg ZEA/kg. Results from in vitro assay showed that L-L4 adsorbed 87.9% (SD 3.97) of zearalenone in 0.9% NaCl solution. In the in vivo exploratory study, higher daily weight gain and lower vulva area were observed in gilts that incorporated L-L4 to the diet. Additionally, higher zearalenone concentrations were eliminated in faeces from treated animals. The use of a product based on a lyophilized indigenous Lactobacillus strain to protect gilts from detrimental effects of zearalenone consumption has shown promising results so far. However, further studies are required in order to accurately assess its impact and evaluate doses according to different degrees of mycotoxins contamination.

Prevention and detoxification of patulin in apple and its products: A review

Patulin-producing fungi pose an unavoidable problem for apple and its product quality, thereby threatening human and/or animal health. Studies on controlling the patulin-producing fungal growth and patulin contamination in apple and its products by physical methods, chemical fungicides, and biological methods have been performed for decades, but patulin contamination has not been addressed. Here, the important of studying regulation mechanism of patulin production in apple at the protein expression and metabolism levels is proposed, which will facilitate the development of controlling patulin production by using physical, chemical, and biological methods. Furthermore, the advantages or disadvantages and effects or mechanisms of using physical, chemical, biological methods to control the decay caused by Penicillium expansum and to remove patulin in food was discussed. The development of physical methods to remove patulin depends on the development of special equipment. Chemical methods are economical and efficient, if we have ensured that there are no unknown reactions or toxic by-products by using these chemicals. The biological method not only effectively controls the decay caused by Penicillium espansum, but also removes the toxins that already exist in the food. Degradation of patulin by microorganisms or biodegradation enzymes is an efficient and promising method to remove patulin in food if the microorganisms used and the degradation products are completely non-toxic.

The ability of Lactobacillus rhamnosus to bind patulin and its application in apple juice

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of Lactobacillus rhamnosus to bind patulin (PAT) in the buffer solution and apple juice. The binding of L. rhamnosus to PAT was reversible, which improved the stability of the bacterial complex. The ability to bind PAT can be enhanced with the inactivation of the strain by high temperature and acid treatment. Acid-treated bacteria had the highest PAT binding rate of 72.73±1.05%. The binding rates of acid and high temperature (121 °C) treatments were increased by 21.37% and 19.15%, respectively. L. rhamnosus showed the best detoxification ability to PAT at 37 °C, where the binding rate reached 50.9±1.03%. When the dose of inactivated bacteria powder was 0.02 g ml−1, the minimum concentration of PAT in apple juice was 0.37 µg ml−1. The addition of the L. rhamnosus inactivated powder did not affect the quality of the juice product and effectively bound the PAT in apple juice.

Detoxification of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines by Probiotic to Inhibit Medical Hazards

Cancer is the second leading factor of human death in the world. Long-term consumption of cooked red meat brings about various types of cancers like colorectal cancer due to the formation of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HAAs) during the heating process of meat. There are various solutions for the reduction of these toxicants. The aim of this article is to describe probiotic as one of the possible strategies for bioremoval of these carcinogenic and mutagenic substances and change food to functional one as well. The mechanism of biodetoxification is binding by probiotics, which depends on some variables including the probiotic characteristics, kind and content of the mutagens, as well as some properties of media. In this article, after introducing detoxification ability of probiotics and listing of all reported probiotics in this field, the influencing variables are surveyed and finally, opportunities and problems of HAA bioremoval by probiotics are described.

Lactic Acid Bacteria as Antifungal and Anti-Mycotoxigenic Agents: A Comprehensive Review

Fungal contamination of food and animal feed, especially by mycotoxigenic fungi, is not only a global food quality concern for food manufacturers, but it also poses serious health concerns because of the production of a variety of mycotoxins, some of which present considerable food safety challenges. In today's mega-scale food and feed productions, which involve a number of processing steps and the use of a variety of ingredients, fungal contamination is regarded as unavoidable, even good manufacturing practices are followed. Chemical preservatives, to some extent, are successful in retarding microbial growth and achieving considerably longer shelf-life. However, the increasing demand for clean label products requires manufacturers to find natural alternatives to replace chemically derived ingredients to guarantee the clean label. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), with the status generally recognized as safe (GRAS), are apprehended as an apt choice to be used as natural preservatives in food and animal feed to control fungal growth and subsequent mycotoxin production. LAB species produce a vast spectrum of antifungal metabolites to inhibit fungal growth; and also have the capacity to adsorb, degrade, or detoxify fungal mycotoxins including ochratoxins, aflatoxins, and Fusarium toxins. The potential of many LAB species to circumvent spoilage associated with fungi has been exploited in a variety of human food and animal feed stuff. This review provides the most recent updates on the ability of LAB to serve as antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic agents. In addition, some recent trends of the use of LAB as biopreservative agents against fungal growth and mycotoxin production are highlighted.

Patulin removal from synbiotic apple juice using Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014

AIMS

The aim of this study was to evaluate the elimination of patulin (PAT) by Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 from artificially contaminated apple juice and its dependence on prebiotic, citric acid and ascorbic acid content.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A central composite design was used for studying each of the three factors at five levels to find the optimum concentrations. The results showed that inserting 2·3% (w/v) fructooligosaccharide, 213 mg l^-1 ascorbic acid and 1·4 g l^-1 citric acid to apple juice with inoculating 3·6 × 10¹¹ CFU per ml, L. plantarum improved the efficiency of PAT removal to 95·91% during 6 weeks cold storage. SDS-PAGE of cell surface proteins of probiotics revealed that surface layer proteins have an important role in PAT removal from apple juice. No significant difference was observed in the flavour and colour of the optimized synbiotic apple juice and in the control sample until 3 weeks of cold storage.

CONCLUSION

Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 is capable of PAT removal from artificially contaminated synbiotic apple juice.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Synbiotic apple juice artificially contaminated with PAT will be safe for consumers after the first day of probiotic inoculation; and surface layer proteins of probiotic cells are responsible for PAT removal.

Microorganisms in Fermented Apple Beverages: Current Knowledge and Future Directions

Production of fermented apple beverages is spread all around the world with specificities in each country. 'French ciders' refer to fermented apple juice mainly produced in the northwest of France and often associated with short periods of consumption. Research articles on this kind of product are scarce compared to wine, especially on phenomena associated with microbial activities. The wine fermentation microbiome and its dynamics, organoleptic improvement for healthy and pleasant products and development of starters are now widely studied. Even if both beverages seem close in terms of microbiome and process (with both alcoholic and malolactic fermentations), the inherent properties of the raw materials and different production and environmental parameters make research on the specificities of apple fermentation beverages worthwhile. This review summarizes current knowledge on the cider microbial ecosystem, associated activities and the influence of process parameters. In addition, available data on cider quality and safety is reviewed. Finally, we focus on the future role of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts in the development of even better or new beverages made from apples.