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King PJS, Saiani A, Bichenkova EV, Miller AF. A de novo self-assembling peptide hydrogel biosensor with covalently immobilised DNA-recognising motifs. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 52:6697-700. [PMID: 27117274 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc01433j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
We report here the first experimental evidence of a self-assembling three-dimensional (3D) peptide hydrogel, with recognition motifs immobilized on the surface of fibres capable of sequence-specific oligonucleotide detection. These systems have the potential to be further developed into diagnostic and prognostic tools in human pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J S King
- Manchester School of Pharmacy, the University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
| | - Alberto Saiani
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
| | - Elena V Bichenkova
- Manchester School of Pharmacy, the University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
| | - Aline F Miller
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
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2
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Wang B, Wang W, Yu Y, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Yuan Z. The study of angiogenesis stimulated by multivalent peptide ligand-modified alginate. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 154:383-390. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.03.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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3
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Markey A, Workman VL, Bruce IA, Woolford TJ, Derby B, Miller AF, Cartmell SH, Saiani A. Peptide hydrogel in vitro non-inflammatory potential. J Pept Sci 2016; 23:148-154. [PMID: 27990715 PMCID: PMC5324702 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Peptide‐based hydrogels have attracted significant interest in recent years as these soft, highly hydrated materials can be engineered to mimic the cell niche with significant potential applications in the biomedical field. Their potential use in vivo in particular is dependent on their biocompatibility, including their potential to cause an inflammatory response. In this work, we investigated in vitro the inflammatory potential of a β‐sheet forming peptide (FEFEFKFK; F: phenylalanine, E: glutamic acid; K: lysine) hydrogel by encapsulating murine monocytes within it (3D culture) and using the production of cytokines, IL‐β, IL‐6 and TNFα, as markers of inflammatory response. No statistically significant release of cytokines in our test sample (media + gel + cells) was observed after 48 or 72 h of culture showing that our hydrogels do not incite a pro‐inflammatory response in vitro. These results show the potential biocompatibility of these hydrogels and therefore their potential for in vivo use. The work also highlighted the difference in monocyte behaviour, proliferation and morphology changes when cultured in 2D vs. 3D. © 2016 The Authors Journal of Peptide Science published by European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Markey
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
| | - V L Workman
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
| | - I A Bruce
- Paediatric ENT Department, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK.,Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
| | - T J Woolford
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Manchester Royal Infirmary, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL
| | - B Derby
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
| | - A F Miller
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK.,School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
| | - S H Cartmell
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
| | - A Saiani
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, Oxford Road M13 9PL, Manchester, UK
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4
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Wan S, Borland S, Richardson SM, Merry CL, Saiani A, Gough JE. Self-assembling peptide hydrogel for intervertebral disc tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2016; 46:29-40. [PMID: 27677593 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cell-based therapies for regeneration of intervertebral discs are regarded to hold promise for degenerative disc disease treatment, a condition that is strongly linked to lower back pain. A de novo self-assembling peptide hydrogel (SAPH), chosen for its biocompatibility, tailorable properties and nanofibrous architecture, was investigated as a cell carrier and scaffold for nucleus pulposus (NP) tissue engineering. Oscillatory rheology determined that the system would likely be deliverable via minimally invasive procedure and mechanical properties could be optimised to match the stiffness of the native human NP. After three-dimensional culture of NP cells (NPCs) in the SAPH, upregulation of NP-specific genes (KRT8, KRT18, FOXF1) confirmed that the system could restore the NP phenotype following de-differentiation during monolayer culture. Cell viability was high throughout culture whilst, similarly to NPCs in vivo, the viable cell population remained stable. Finally, the SAPH stimulated time-dependent increases in aggrecan and type II collagen deposition, two important NP extracellular matrix components. Results supported the hypothesis that the SAPH could be used as a cell delivery system and scaffold for the treatment of degenerative disc disease. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Lower back pain (LBP) prevalence is widespread due to an aging population and the limited efficacy of current treatments. As LBP is strongly associated with intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration, it is thought that cell-based therapies could alleviate LBP by repairing IVD tissue. Various natural and synthetic biomaterials have been investigated as potential IVD tissue engineering scaffolds. Self-assembling peptide hydrogels (SAPHs) combine advantages of both natural and synthetic biomaterials; for example they are biocompatible and have easily modifiable properties. The present study demonstrated that a de novo SAPH had comparable strength to the native tissue, was injectable, restored the IVD cell phenotype and stimulated deposition of appropriate matrix components. Results illustrated the promise of SAPHs as scaffolds for IVD tissue engineering.
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5
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Mangelschots J, Bibian M, Gardiner J, Waddington L, Van Wanseele Y, Van Eeckhaut A, Acevedo MMD, Van Mele B, Madder A, Hoogenboom R, Ballet S. Mixed α/β-Peptides as a Class of Short Amphipathic Peptide Hydrogelators with Enhanced Proteolytic Stability. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:437-45. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b01319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - James Gardiner
- CSIRO Manufacturing
Flagship, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, VIC 3169, Australia
| | - Lynne Waddington
- CSIRO Manufacturing
Flagship, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, VIC 3169, Australia
| | - Yannick Van Wanseele
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, B-1090 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ann Van Eeckhaut
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, B-1090 Brussels, Belgium
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6
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Decandio CC, Silva ER, Hamley IW, Castelletto V, Liberato MS, Oliveira VX, Oliveira CLP, Alves WA. Self-Assembly of a Designed Alternating Arginine/Phenylalanine Oligopeptide. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:4513-23. [PMID: 25823528 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b00253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
A model octapeptide peptide consisting of an alternating sequence of arginine (Arg) and phenylalanine (Phe) residues, namely, [Arg-Phe]4, was prepared, and its self-assembly in solution studied. The simple alternating [Arg-Phe]4 peptide sequence allows for unique insights into the aggregation process and the structure of the self-assembled motifs. Fluorescence and UV-vis assays were used to determine critical aggregation concentrations, corresponding to the formation of oligomeric species and β-sheet rich structures organized into both spheroidal aggregates and highly ordered fibrils. Electron and atomic force microscopy images show globular aggregates and long unbranched fibers with diameters ranging from ∼4 nm up to ∼40 nm. Infrared and circular dichroism spectroscopy show the formation of β-sheet structures. X-ray diffraction on oriented stalks show that the peptide fibers have an internal lamellar structure, with an orthorhombic unit cell with parameters a ∼ 27.6 Å, b ∼ 9.7 Å, and c ∼ 9.6 Å. In situ small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) shows the presence of low molecular weight oligomers in equilibrium with mature fibers which are likely made up from 5 or 6 intertwined protofilaments. Finally, weak gel solutions are probed under gentle shear, suggesting the ability of these arginine-rich fibers to form networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla C Decandio
- †Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Emerson R Silva
- †Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09210-580, Brazil
- ‡Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD, United Kingdom
| | - Ian W Hamley
- ‡Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD, United Kingdom
| | - Valeria Castelletto
- ‡Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle S Liberato
- †Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Vani X Oliveira
- †Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09210-580, Brazil
| | | | - Wendel A Alves
- †Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09210-580, Brazil
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Hickling C, Toogood HS, Saiani A, Scrutton NS, Miller AF. Nanofibrillar Peptide hydrogels for the immobilization of biocatalysts for chemical transformations. Macromol Rapid Commun 2014; 35:868-74. [PMID: 24604676 PMCID: PMC4316184 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201400027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Enzymes are attractive, "green" alternatives to chemical catalysts within the industrial sector, but their robustness to environmental conditions needs optimizing. Here, an enzyme is tagged chemically and recombinantly with a self-assembling peptide that allows the conjugate to spontaneously assemble with pure peptide to form β-sheet-rich nanofibers decorated with tethered enzyme. Above a critical concentration, these fibers entangle and form a 3D hydrogel. The immobilized enzyme catalyzes chemical transformations and critically its stability is increased significantly where it retains activity after exposure to high temperatures (90 °C) and long storage times (up to 12 months).
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Hickling
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1, 7DN, UK
| | - Helen S Toogood
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1, 7DN, UK
| | - Alberto Saiani
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, School of Materials, University of ManchesterManchester, M1, 3 9PL, UK
| | - Nigel S Scrutton
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1, 7DN, UK
| | - Aline F Miller
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1, 7DN, UK
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8
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Boothroyd S, Saiani A, Miller AF. Controlling network topology and mechanical properties of co-assembling peptide hydrogels. Biopolymers 2014; 101:669-80. [DOI: 10.1002/bip.22435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Boothroyd
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemical Engineering & Analytical Science; University of Manchester; 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Alberto Saiani
- School of Materials Science; University of Manchester; Grosvenor Street, Manchester M1 7HS UK
| | - Aline F. Miller
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemical Engineering & Analytical Science; University of Manchester; 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN UK
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Piluso S, Cassell HC, Gibbons JL, Waller TE, Plant NJ, Miller AF, Cavalli G. Site-specific, covalent incorporation of Tus, a DNA-binding protein, on ionic-complementary self-assembling peptide hydrogels using transpeptidase Sortase A as a conjugation tool†Dedicated to the memory of Joachim H. G. Steinke.‡Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Further experimental data. See DOI: 10.1039/c3sm00131hClick here for additional data file. SOFT MATTER 2013; 9:6752-6756. [PMID: 23847687 PMCID: PMC3705885 DOI: 10.1039/c3sm00131h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The site-specific conjugation of DNA-binding protein (Tus) to self-assembling peptide FEFEFKFKK was demonstrated. Rheology studies and TEM of the corresponding hydrogels (including PNIPAAm-containing systems) showed no significant variation in properties and hydrogel morphology compared to FEFEFKFKK. Critically, we demonstrate that Tus is accessible within the gel network displaying DNA-binding properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Piluso
- Department of Chemistry , University of Surrey , Guildford , GU2 7XH , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)1483 686837
| | - Heather C. Cassell
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology , University of Surrey , Guildford , GU2 7XH , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)1483 686412
| | - Jonathan L. Gibbons
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , School of Chemical Engineering & Analytical Science , University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street , Manchester , M1 7DN , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)161 3065781
| | - Thomas E. Waller
- Department of Chemistry , University of Surrey , Guildford , GU2 7XH , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)1483 686837
| | - Nick J. Plant
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology , University of Surrey , Guildford , GU2 7XH , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)1483 686412
| | - Aline F. Miller
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , School of Chemical Engineering & Analytical Science , University of Manchester , 131 Princess Street , Manchester , M1 7DN , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)161 3065781
| | - Gabriel Cavalli
- Department of Chemistry , University of Surrey , Guildford , GU2 7XH , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0)1483 686837
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10
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Self-assembled octapeptide scaffolds for in vitro chondrocyte culture. Acta Biomater 2013; 9:4609-17. [PMID: 22963851 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.08.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Nature has evolved a variety of creative approaches to many aspects of materials synthesis and microstructural control. Molecular self-assembly is a simple and efficient way to fabricate complex nanostructures such as hydrogels. We have recently investigated the gelation properties of a series of ionic-complementary peptides based on the alternation of non-polar hydrophobic and polar hydrophilic residues. In this work we focus on one specific octapeptide, FEFEFKFK (F, phenylalanine; E, glutamic acid; K, lysine). This peptide was shown to self-assemble in solution and form β-sheet-rich nanofibres which, above a critical gelation concentration, entangle to form a self-supporting hydrogel. The fibre morphology of the hydrogel was analysed using transmission electron microscopy and cryo-scanning electron microscopy illustrating a dense fibrillar network of nanometer size fibres. Oscillatory rheology results show that the hydrogel possesses visco-elastic properties. Bovine chondrocytes were used to assess the biocompatibility of the scaffolds over 21 days under two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) cell culture conditions, particularly looking at cell morphology, proliferation and matrix deposition. 2-D culture resulted in cell viability and collagen type I deposition. In 3-D culture the mechanically stable gel was shown to support the viability of cells, the retention of cell morphology and collagen type II deposition. Subsequently the scaffold may serve as a template for cartilage tissue engineering.
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Boothroyd S, Miller AF, Saiani A. From fibres to networks using self-assembling peptides. Faraday Discuss 2013; 166:195-207. [DOI: 10.1039/c3fd00097d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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12
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Sakai-Kato K, Hasegawa T, Takaoka A, Kato M, Toyo'oka T, Utsunomiya-Tate N, Kawanishi T. Controlled structure and properties of silicate nanoparticle networks for incorporation of biosystem components. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2011; 22:205702. [PMID: 21444966 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/22/20/205702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic nanoparticles are of technological interest in many fields. We created silicate nanoparticle hydrogels that effectively incorporated biomolecules that are unstable and involved in complicated reactions. The size of the silicate nanoparticles strongly affected both the physical characteristics of the resulting hydrogel and the activity of biomolecules incorporated within the hydrogel. We used high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to analyze in detail the hydrogel network patterns formed by the silicate nanoparticles. We obtained clear nanostructured images of biomolecule-nanoparticle composite hydrogels. The TEM images also showed that larger silicate nanoparticles (22 nm) formed more loosely associated silicate networks than did smaller silicate nanoparticles (7 nm). The loosely associated networks formed from larger silicate nanoparticles might facilitate substrate diffusion through the network, thus promoting the observed increased activity of the entrapped biomolecules. This doubled the activity of the incorporated biosystems compared with that of biosystems prepared by our own previously reported method. We propose a reaction scheme to explain the formation of the silicate nanoparticle networks. The successful incorporation of biomolecules into the nanoparticle hydrogels, along with the high level of activity exhibited by the biomolecules required for complicated reaction within the gels, demonstrates the nanocomposites' potential for use in medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumiko Sakai-Kato
- Division of Drugs, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
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Bruckman MA, Soto CM, McDowell H, Liu JL, Ratna BR, Korpany KV, Zahr OK, Blum AS. Role of hexahistidine in directed nanoassemblies of tobacco mosaic virus coat protein. ACS NANO 2011; 5:1606-16. [PMID: 21361370 DOI: 10.1021/nn1025719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A common challenge in nanotechnology is the fabrication of materials with well-defined nanoscale structure and properties. Here we report that a genetically engineered tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) coat protein (CP), to which a hexahistidine (His) tag was incorporated, can self-assemble into disks, hexagonally packed arrays of disks, stacked disks, helical rods, fibers, and elongated rafts. The insertion of a His tag to the C-terminus of TMV-CP was shown to significantly affect the self-assembly in comparison to the wild type, WT-TMV-CP. Furthermore, the His tag interactions attributed to the alternative self-assembly of His-TMV-CP can be controlled through ethanol and nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni-NTA) additions as monitored with atomic force microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Bruckman
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, Naval Research Laboratory, 4555 Overlook Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20375, United States
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Guilbaud JB, Vey E, Boothroyd S, Smith AM, Ulijn RV, Saiani A, Miller AF. Enzymatic catalyzed synthesis and triggered gelation of ionic peptides. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2010; 26:11297-11303. [PMID: 20408518 DOI: 10.1021/la100623y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the possibility of using the protease thermolysin to drive the synthesis and gelation of ionic-complementary peptides from nongelling precursors. In this system, short peptide fragments are continuously interconverted to form a dynamic peptide library, which eventually favors synthesis of peptides that are thermodynamically stabilized by molecular self-assembly. Thermolysin was added at a fixed concentration (0.3 mg mL(-1)) to solutions (0-300 mg mL(-1)) of the short tetrapeptide FEFK. Initially, the protease partially hydrolyzed the tetrapeptide into dipeptides in all samples. Subsequently, longer peptide sequences were found to form through reverse-hydrolysis. The stability of the different sequences was found to be dependent on their self-assembling properties. The sequences that self-assembled into antiparallel beta-sheet rich fibers became the stable products for the reverse hydrolysis reaction, while the others formed were unstable and disappeared with increasing incubation time. Ultimately, the main product of the system was octapeptide, which suggests that it represents the thermodynamically favored product of this dynamic library. Its concentration dictated the gelation behavior of the sample, and gels with moduli up to 25 kPa where obtained depending on the initial concentration of tetrapeptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Baptiste Guilbaud
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences and Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
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