Early Changes in Striatal Activity and Motor Kinematics in a Huntington's Disease Mouse Model

Anxiety, memory, and social impairments in the YAC128 mouse model of Huntington's disease

BACKGROUND

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant hereditary disorder, caused by an expansion of polyglutamine in the huntingtin protein. HD is characterized by a progressive decline in motor functions. This decline includes involuntary movements (chorea) and the worsening of controlled motions caused mainly by neuronal dysfunction in the striatum. In addition to the deterioration of motor symptoms, HD patients also suffer from cognitive changes, mood swings, apathy, depression, outbursts of anger, psychosis, and social withdrawal.

OBJECTIVE

A comprehensive examination of cognitive, affective, and social changes in the HD mouse model is required for the development of combined therapy for both motor and non-motor deficits in HD.

METHODS

The behavioral tests for anxiety, memory, and social traits were used in this study.

RESULTS

YAC128 HD transgenic mice exhibited anxiolytic behavior in the novel brightly illuminated environment of the open field and light-dark place preference tests. Moreover, YAC128 HD mice also suffered from a decline in their recognition memory during the novel object recognition test. YAC128 HD mice demonstrated reduced exploration interest during the open field with a non-social target as well as during the first day of the three-chamber social test. Social interaction was also impaired in YAC128 HD mice as it was shown in the social interaction with resident intruder test.

CONCLUSIONS

YAC128 HD mouse model may be used as a model system to test the possible treatments for both motor and non-motor symptoms including memory loss, agitation and social withdrawal.

Movement-related increases in subthalamic activity optimize locomotion

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is traditionally thought to restrict movement. Lesion or prolonged STN inhibition increases movement vigor and propensity, while optogenetic excitation has opposing effects. However, STN neurons often exhibit movement-related increases in firing. To address this paradox, STN activity was recorded and manipulated in head-fixed mice at rest and during self-initiated and self-paced treadmill locomotion. We found that (1) most STN neurons (type 1) exhibit locomotion-dependent increases in activity, with half firing preferentially during the propulsive phase of the contralateral locomotor cycle; (2) a minority of STN neurons exhibit dips in activity or are uncorrelated with movement; (3) brief optogenetic inhibition of the lateral STN (where type 1 neurons are concentrated) slows and prematurely terminates locomotion; and (4) in Q175 Huntington's disease mice, abnormally brief, low-velocity locomotion is associated with type 1 hypoactivity. Together, these data argue that movement-related increases in STN activity contribute to optimal locomotor performance.

Movement-related increases in subthalamic activity optimize locomotion

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is traditionally thought to restrict movement. Lesion or prolonged STN inhibition increases movement vigor and propensity, while ontogenetic excitation typically has opposing effects. Subthalamic and motor activity are also inversely correlated in movement disorders. However, most STN neurons exhibit movement-related increases in firing. To address this paradox, STN activity was recorded and manipulated in head-fixed mice at rest and during self-initiated treadmill locomotion. The majority of STN neurons (type 1) exhibited locomotion-dependent increases in activity, with half encoding the locomotor cycle. A minority of neurons exhibited dips in activity or were uncorrelated with movement. Brief optogenetic inhibition of the dorsolateral STN (where type 1 neurons are concentrated) slowed and prematurely terminated locomotion. In Q175 Huntington's disease mice abnormally brief, low-velocity locomotion was specifically associated with type 1 hyperactivity. Together these data argue that movement-related increases in STN activity contribute to optimal locomotor performance.

Deep behavioural phenotyping of the Q175 Huntington disease mouse model: effects of age, sex, and weight

BACKGROUND

Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with complex motor and behavioural manifestations. The Q175 knock-in mouse model of HD has gained recent popularity as a genetically accurate model of the human disease. However, behavioural phenotypes are often subtle and progress slowly in this model. Here, we have implemented machine-learning algorithms to investigate behaviour in the Q175 model and compare differences between sexes and disease stages. We explore distinct behavioural patterns and motor functions in open field, rotarod, water T-maze, and home cage lever-pulling tasks.

RESULTS

In the open field, we observed habituation deficits in two versions of the Q175 model (zQ175dn and Q175FDN, on two different background strains), and using B-SOiD, an advanced machine learning approach, we found altered performance of rearing in male manifest zQ175dn mice. Notably, we found that weight had a considerable effect on performance of accelerating rotarod and water T-maze tasks and controlled for this by normalizing for weight. Manifest zQ175dn mice displayed a deficit in accelerating rotarod (after weight normalization), as well as changes to paw kinematics specific to males. Our water T-maze experiments revealed response learning deficits in manifest zQ175dn mice and reversal learning deficits in premanifest male zQ175dn mice; further analysis using PyMouseTracks software allowed us to characterize new behavioural features in this task, including time at decision point and number of accelerations. In a home cage-based lever-pulling assessment, we found significant learning deficits in male manifest zQ175dn mice. A subset of mice also underwent electrophysiology slice experiments, revealing a reduced spontaneous excitatory event frequency in male manifest zQ175dn mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study uncovered several behavioural changes in Q175 mice that differed by sex, age, and strain. Our results highlight the impact of weight and experimental protocol on behavioural results, and the utility of machine learning tools to examine behaviour in more detailed ways than was previously possible. Specifically, this work provides the field with an updated overview of behavioural impairments in this model of HD, as well as novel techniques for dissecting behaviour in the open field, accelerating rotarod, and T-maze tasks.

Opposing Motor Memories in the Direct and Indirect Pathways of the Basal Ganglia

Loss of dopamine neurons causes motor deterioration in Parkinson's disease patients. We have previously reported that in addition to acute motor impairment, the impaired motor behavior is encoded into long-term memory in an experience-dependent and task-specific manner, a phenomenon we refer to as aberrant inhibitory motor learning. Although normal motor learning and aberrant inhibitory learning oppose each other and this is manifested in apparent motor performance, in the present study, we found that normal motor memory acquired prior to aberrant inhibitory learning remains preserved in the brain, suggesting the existence of independent storage. To investigate the neuronal circuits underlying these two opposing memories, we took advantage of the RNA-binding protein YTHDF1, an m 6 A RNA methylation reader involved in the regulation of protein synthesis and learning/memory. Conditional deletion of Ythdf1 in either D1 or D2 receptor-expressing neurons revealed that normal motor memory is stored in the D1 (direct) pathway of the basal ganglia, while inhibitory memory is stored in the D2 (indirect) pathway. Furthermore, fiber photometry recordings of GCaMP signals from striatal D1 (dSPN) and D2 (iSPN) receptor-expressing neurons support the preservation of normal memory in the direct pathway after aberrant inhibitory learning, with activities of dSPN predictive of motor performance. Finally, a computational model based on activities of motor cortical neurons, dSPN and iSPN neurons, and their interactions through the basal ganglia loops supports the above observations. These findings have important implications for novel approaches in treating Parkinson's disease by reactivating preserved normal memory, and in treating hyperkinetic movement disorders such as chorea or tics by erasing aberrant motor memories.

The Role of Innovation Technology in the Rehabilitation of Patients Affected by Huntington's Disease: A Scoping Review

Huntington's disease is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by the repetition of cytosine, adenine, and guanine trinucleotides on the short arm of chromosome 4p16.3 within the Huntingtin gene. In this study, we aim to examine and map the existing evidence on the use of innovations in the rehabilitation of Huntington's disease. A scoping review was conducted on innovative rehabilitative treatments performed on patients with Huntington's disease. A search was performed on PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases to screen references of included studies and review articles for additional citations. Of an initial 1117 articles, only 20 met the search criteria. These findings showed that available evidence is still limited and that studies generally had small sample sizes and a high risk of bias. Regarding cognitive rehabilitation, it has emerged that VR- and PC-based methods as well as NIBS techniques are feasible and may have promising effects in individuals with Huntington's disease. On the other hand, scarce evidence was found for cognitive and motor training that might have a slight impact on overall cognitive function in individuals with Huntington's disease. Data show that further investigation is needed to explore the effects of innovative rehabilitation tools on cognition, especially considering that cognitive and psychiatric symptoms can precede the onset of motor symptoms by many years.

Rodent Models of Huntington's Disease: An Overview

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant inherited neurological disorder caused by a genetic mutation in the IT15 gene. This neurodegenerative disorder is caused by a polyglutamine repeat expansion mutation in the widely expressed huntingtin (HTT) protein. HD is characterized by the degeneration of basal ganglia neurons and progressive cell death in intrinsic neurons of the striatum, accompanied by dementia and involuntary abnormal choreiform movements. Animal models have been extensively studied and have proven to be extremely valuable for therapeutic target evaluations. They reveal the hallmark of the age-dependent formation of aggregates or inclusions consisting of misfolded proteins. Animal models of HD have provided a therapeutic strategy to treat HD by suppressing mutant HTT (mHTT). Transgenic animal models have significantly increased our understanding of the molecular processes and pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the HD behavioral phenotype. Since effective therapies to cure or interrupt the course of the disease are not yet available, clinical research will have to make use of reliable animal models. This paper reviews the main studies of rodents as HD animal models, highlighting the neurological and behavioral differences between them. The choice of an animal model depends on the specific aspect of the disease to be investigated. Toxin-based models can still be useful, but most experimental hypotheses depend on success in a genetic model, whose choice is determined by the experimental question. There are many animal models showing similar HD symptoms or pathologies. They include chemical-induced HDs and genetic HDs, where cell-free and cell culture, lower organisms (such as yeast, Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish), rodents (mice, rats), and non-human primates are involved. These models provide accessible systems to study molecular pathogenesis and test potential treatments. For developing more effective pharmacological treatments, better animal models must be available and used to evaluate the efficacy of drugs.

HD and SCA1: Tales from two 30-year journeys since gene discovery

One of the more transformative findings in human genetics was the discovery that the expansion of unstable nucleotide repeats underlies a group of inherited neurological diseases. A subset of these unstable repeat neurodegenerative diseases is due to the expansion of a CAG trinucleotide repeat encoding a stretch of glutamines, i.e., the polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat neurodegenerative diseases. Among the CAG/polyQ repeat diseases are Huntington's disease (HD) and spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1), in which the expansions are within widely expressed proteins. Although both HD and SCA1 are autosomal dominantly inherited, and both typically cause mid- to late-life-onset movement disorders with cognitive decline, they each are characterized by distinct clinical characteristics and predominant sites of neuropathology. Importantly, the respective affected proteins, Huntingtin (HTT, HD) and Ataxin 1 (ATXN1, SCA1), have unique functions and biological properties. Here, we review HD and SCA1 with a focus on how their disease-specific and shared features may provide informative insights.

Water-Reaching Platform for Longitudinal Assessment of Cortical Activity and Fine Motor Coordination Defects in a Huntington Disease Mouse Model

Huntington disease (HD), caused by dominantly inherited expansions of a CAG repeat results in characteristic motor dysfunction. Although gross motor defects have been extensively characterized in multiple HD mouse models using tasks such as rotarod and beam walking, less is known about forelimb deficits. We develop a high-throughput alternating reward/nonreward water-reaching task and training protocol conducted daily over approximately two months to simultaneously monitor forelimb impairment and mesoscale cortical changes in GCaMP activity, comparing female zQ175 (HD) and wild-type (WT) littermate mice, starting at ∼5.5 months. Behavioral analysis of the water-reaching task reveals that HD mice, despite learning the water-reaching task as proficiently as wild-type mice, take longer to learn the alternating event sequence as evident by impulsive (noncued) reaches and initially display reduced cortical activity associated with successful reaches. At this age gross motor defects determined by tapered beam assessment were not apparent. Although wild-type mice displayed no significant changes in cortical activity and reaching trajectory throughout the testing period, HD mice exhibited an increase in cortical activity, especially in the secondary motor and retrosplenial cortices, over time, as well as longer and more variable reaching trajectories by approximately seven months. HD mice also experienced a progressive reduction in successful performance. Tapered beam and rotarod tests as well as reduced DARPP-32 expression (striatal medium spiny neuron marker) after water-reaching assessment confirmed HD pathology. The water-reaching task can be used to inform on a daily basis, HD and other movement disorder onset and manifestation, therapeutic intervention windows, and test drug efficacy.

Calcium imaging: A versatile tool to examine Huntington's disease mechanisms and progression

Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal, hereditary neurodegenerative disorder that causes chorea, cognitive deficits, and psychiatric symptoms. It is characterized by accumulation of mutant Htt protein, which primarily impacts striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), as well as cortical pyramidal neurons (CPNs), causing synapse loss and eventually cell death. Perturbed Ca2+ homeostasis is believed to play a major role in HD, as altered Ca2+ homeostasis often precedes striatal dysfunction and manifestation of HD symptoms. In addition, dysregulation of Ca2+ can cause morphological and functional changes in MSNs and CPNs. Therefore, Ca2+ imaging techniques have the potential of visualizing changes in Ca2+ dynamics and neuronal activity in HD animal models. This minireview focuses on studies using diverse Ca2+ imaging techniques, including two-photon microscopy, fiber photometry, and miniscopes, in combination of Ca2+ indicators to monitor activity of neurons in HD models as the disease progresses. We then discuss the future applications of Ca2+ imaging to visualize disease mechanisms and alterations associated with HD, as well as studies showing how, as a proof-of-concept, Ca2+imaging using miniscopes in freely-behaving animals can help elucidate the differential role of direct and indirect pathway MSNs in HD symptoms.