Maillard reaction indicators in diets usually consumed by adolescent population

Associations between the prevalence of asthma and dietary exposure to food contaminants in children: CHASER study

BACKGROUND

Asthma is a common, multifactorial chronic disease with a major impact on children and adolescents. Exposure to food contaminants is one of the contributing factors to asthma. This study aims to evaluate the intake and exposure of different contaminants and explore their association with childhood asthma.

METHODS

The Childhood Asthma and Environment Research study evaluated Italian children aged 5-14 years, divided into control and asthma case groups. Dietary habits were recorded, and exposure to 11 food contaminants was estimated with the CONT11 database. The study included 428 children, 264 with asthma and 164 without.

RESULTS

The findings of this study were consistent with those reported in other studies, indicating that exposure to nitrates and acrylamide was significantly higher in asthmatic children. The results suggest that exposure to certain contaminants could have a more pronounced effect on asthmatic children.

CONCLUSIONS

The study demonstrates the importance of tools such as CONT11 in assessing food safety. Furthermore, it reinforces the need to prevent and reduce exposure to food contaminants to minimize health risks.

Dietary glycation compounds - implications for human health

The term "glycation compounds" comprises a wide range of structurally diverse compounds that are formed endogenously and in food via the Maillard reaction, a chemical reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids. Glycation compounds produced endogenously are considered to contribute to a range of diseases. This has led to the hypothesis that glycation compounds present in food may also cause adverse effects and thus pose a nutritional risk to human health. In this work, the Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM) of the German Research Foundation (DFG) summarized data on formation, occurrence, exposure and toxicity of glycation compounds (Part A) and systematically assessed potential associations between dietary intake of defined glycation compounds and disease, including allergy, diabetes, cardiovascular and renal disease, gut/gastrotoxicity, brain/cognitive impairment and cancer (Part B). A systematic search in Pubmed (Medline), Scopus and Web of Science using a combination of keywords defining individual glycation compounds and relevant disease patterns linked to the subject area of food, nutrition and diet retrieved 253 original publications relevant to the research question. Of these, only 192 were found to comply with previously defined quality criteria and were thus considered suitable to assess potential health risks of dietary glycation compounds. For each adverse health effect considered in this assessment, however, only limited numbers of human, animal and in vitro studies were identified. While studies in humans were often limited due to small cohort size, short study duration, and confounders, experimental studies in animals that allow for controlled exposure to individual glycation compounds provided some evidence for impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, cardiovascular effects and renal injury in response to oral exposure to dicarbonyl compounds, albeit at dose levels by far exceeding estimated human exposures. The overall database was generally inconsistent or inconclusive. Based on this systematic review, the SKLM concludes that there is at present no convincing evidence for a causal association between dietary intake of glycation compounds and adverse health effects.

Efficient and straightforward spectrophotometric analysis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) using citrate@Fe3O4 nanoparticles as an adsorbent

In this study, we developed a spectrophotometry method for the analysis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfuraldehyde (HMF) in pharmaceutical formulations using citrate@Fe3O4 adsorbent. As bare magnetite (Fe3O4) has certain limitations, such as aggregation and oxidation, surface modifications are commonly used to improve its properties. We successfully coated Fe3O4 with sodium citrate to create a magnetic adsorbent for isolating HMF from samples. We confirmed the successful surface coating of Fe3O4 with citrate using Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Zeta potential, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The high adsorption capacity of citrate@Fe3O4 is due to the abundance of carboxyl and hydroxyl groups on the surface of the adsorbent, making it ideal for HMF extraction. The HMF concentration was then quantified using spectrophotometry. Citrate@Fe3O4 exhibited a high surface area and strong interaction with HMF. We analyzed the individual influential factors affecting the magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) setup. Validation parameters were also provided to confirm the reliability of the method. Under optimal parameters, the method exhibited excellent linearity in the range of 0.05-30.00 μg/ml with the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of 0.05 μg/ml. Relative standard deviations (RSD) values for precision were better than 10% and the method's trueness were better than 10%. Recoveries were found to be in the range of 85% to 106%, indicating excellent accuracy and reliability. We used this method to identify and measure HMF in six different dextrose pharmaceutical dosage forms as intravenous injectable solutions and three honey samples.

Research of Maillard reaction and stability of liquid infant formulas during storage

This study investigated the Maillard reaction (MR) and the stability of liquid infant formulas (LIFs) stored at 5 °C, 25 °C and 40 °C for 6 months. With the increase in storage temperature, the concentrations of 2‐furoylmethyl‐ε‐lysine (furosine) increased from 60.72 to 109.60 mg/100 g protein and Nɛ‐ Carboxy methyl lysine (CML) increased 106.82 to 197.04 mg/100 g protein. Colour became darker, yellower and redder, and pH values decreased. Negative charges increased during the first 3 months and decreased during the last 3 months. Fat globule sizes increased and particle size distribution (PSD) regressed, and the accumulation of fat was clearly observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Shear thickened with the increase in shear rate, and the turbiscan stability index (TSI) values increased. In summary, these results indicated that lower storage temperature (5 °C) inhibits the MR and reduces unstable changes of LIF during storage period; thus, the nutritional value of LIF can be largely preserved.

HILIC UPLC/ QTof MS Method Development for the Quantification of AGEs Inhibitors - Trouble Shooting Protocol

OBJECTIVE

The paper reports an attempt to develop and validate a HILIC UPLC/ QTof MS method for quantifying N-ε-carboxymethyl-L-lysine (CML) in vitro, testing N-ε- carboxy[D2]methyl-L-lysine (d2-CML), and N-ε-carboxy[4,4,5,5-D4]methyl-L-lysine (d4-CML) as internal standards.

METHODS

During the method development, several challenging questions occurred that hindered the successful completion of the method. The study emphasizes the impact of issues, generally overlooked in the development of similar analytical protocols. For instance, the use of glassware and plasticware was critical for the accurate quantification of CML. Moreover, the origin of atypical variation in the response of the deuterated internal standards, though widely used in other experimental procedures, was investigated.

RESULT

A narrative description of the systematic approach used to address the various drawbacks during the analytical method development and validation is presented.

CONCLUSION

Reporting those findings can be considered beneficial while bringing an insightful notion about critical factors and potential interferences. Therefore, some conclusion and ideas can be drawn from these trouble-shooting questions, which might help other researchers to develop more reliable bioanalytical methods, or to raise their awareness of stumbling blocks along the way.

Investigation of the allergenicity alterations of shrimp tropomyosin as glycated by glucose and maltotriose containing advanced glycation end products

Tropomyosin (TM) is the major allergen in shrimp that is known to be the primary trigger for shrimp-induced food allergy. Our previous reports suggest that glycation could reduce the allergenicity of TM and the reduction of allergenicity is largely dependent on the sources of saccharides. This investigation aimed to investigate the glycation of TM by glucose and maltotriose as well as the effects of glycation on the allergenicity of TM. Compared to TM, the IgG-binding capacity and IgE-binding capacity of tropomyosin glycated by glucose (TM-G) was greatly reduced with a longer glycation time, the release of allergic mediators from RBL-2H3 mast cells was reduced in a time-dependent manner, and weaker allergic reactions were induced in BALB/c mice. Conversely, tropomyosin glycated by maltotriose (TM-MTS) exhibited a stronger allergenicity after 48 hours of glycation due to the generation of neoallergens that were derived from the advanced glycation end products (AGEs). In conclusion, glucose could be used to desensitize the shrimp TM-induced food allergy via glycation, which could significantly reduce the allergenicity and alleviate allergic symptoms. This work could provide a novel approach to reduce the allergenicity of shrimp tropomyosin and prevent the shrimp tropomyosin-induced food allergy.

Accumulation of Advanced Glycation End-Products in the Body and Dietary Habits

The formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGE) in tissues is a physiological process; however, excessive production and storage are pathological and lead to inflammation. A sedentary lifestyle, hypercaloric and high-fructose diet and increased intake of processed food elements contribute to excessive production of compounds, which are created in the non-enzymatic multi-stage glycation process. The AGE’s sources can be endogenous and exogenous, mainly due to processing food at high temperatures and low moisture, including grilling, roasting, and frying. Accumulation of AGE increases oxidative stress and initiates various disorders, leading to the progression of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and their complications. Inborn defensive mechanisms, recovery systems, and exogenous antioxidants (including polyphenols) protect from excessive AGE accumulation. Additionally, numerous products have anti-glycation properties, occurring mainly in fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices. It confirms the role of diet in the prevention of civilization diseases.

Reducing the Allergenicity of Shrimp Tropomyosin and Allergy Desensitization Based on Glycation Modification

Shrimp is a major allergic food that could trigger severe food allergy, with the most significant and potent allergen of shrimp referred to as tropomyosin (TM). Glycation modification (Maillard reaction) could reportedly weaken the allergenicity of TM and generate hypoallergenic TM, while up to now, there is still a lack of investigations on the hypoallergenic glycated tropomyosin (GTM) as a candidate immunotherapy for desensitizing the shrimp TM-induced allergy. This study analyzed the effects of glycation modification on decreasing the allergenicity of TM and generated hypoallergenic GTM and how GTM absorbed to the Al(OH)₃ function as a candidate immunotherapy for desensitizing allergy. As the results, in comparison to TM, the saccharides of smaller molecular sizes could lead to more advanced glycation end products in GTMs than saccharides of greater molecular sizes, and TM glycated by saccharides of different molecular sizes (glucose, maltose, maltotriose, maltopentaose, and maltoheptaose) exhibited lower allergenicity as a hypoallergen upon activating the allergic reactions of the mast cell and mouse model, while TM glycated by maltose had insignificant allergenicity changes upon activating the allergic reactions of the mast cell and mouse model. In addition, the hypoallergenic GTM + Al(OH)₃ was efficient as a candidate immunotherapy; this work intended to offer preclinical data to promote GTM + Al(OH)₃ as a candidate allergen-specific immunotherapy for desensitizing the allergy reactions for patients allergic to shrimp food.

Dietary advanced glycation end-products elicit toxicological effects by disrupting gut microbiome and immune homeostasis

The aging immune system is characterized by a low-grade chronic systemic inflammatory state ("inflammaging") marked by elevated serum levels of inflammatory molecules such as interleukin (IL)-6 and C-reactive protein (CRP). These inflammatory markers were also reported to be strong predictors for the development/severity of Type 2 diabetes, obesity, and COVID-19. The levels of these markers have been positively associated with those of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) generated via non-enzymatic glycation and oxidation of proteins and lipids during normal aging and metabolism. Based on the above observations, it is clinically important to elucidate how dietary AGEs modulate inflammation and might thus increase the risk for aging-exacerbated diseases. The present narrative review discusses the potential pro-inflammatory properties of dietary AGEs with a focus on the inflammatory mediators CRP, IL-6 and ferritin, and their relations to aging in general and Type 2 diabetes in particular. In addition, underlying mechanisms - including those related to gut microbiota and the receptors for AGEs, and the roles AGEs might play in affecting physiologies of the healthy elderly, obese individuals, and diabetics are discussed in regard to any greater susceptibility to COVID-19.

Preliminary Investigation on the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Commercial Salmorejo Found in Spanish Supermarkets

Salmorejo is a traditional Spanish food made of raw tomatoes, bread, garlic, and virgin olive oil. The food industry aims to satisfy consumer demand for ready-to-eat salmorejo while trying to maintain characteristics of the homemade product. In this work, we have assessed physical-chemical and color parameters, radical scavenging activity, and total polyphenol, lycopene, and β-carotene contents of raw and pasteurized commercial salmorejo, as well as homemade (raw) salmorejo samples. Our results showed that heat treatment had a significant influence on color parameters of salmorejo, with pasteurized samples being less red and exhibiting an increase in the degree of browning. Pasteurized samples also showed the highest radical scavenging activity when expressing the results per dry weight. However, when water content was considered, radical scavenging activity was superior in homemade samples when analyzing non-polar molecules extracted with acetone. Results were similar for polyphenol content. It was also observed that heat treatment affected lycopene but not β-carotene content. When acquiring commercial salmorejo at the supermarket, consumers have the option to choose between already prepared pasteurized or raw salmorejo. According to the results obtained in this work, physicochemical and functional properties of commercial raw salmorejo were comparable to a larger extent than pasteurized salmorejo compared to those exhibited by homemade salmorejo samples.

Gold Nanoparticle-Bioconjugated Aminoguanidine Inhibits Glycation Reaction: An In Vivo Study in a Diabetic Animal Model

Proteins undergo glycation resulting in the generation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that play a central role in the onset and advancement of diabetes-associated secondary complications. Aminoguanidine (AG) acts as an antiglycating agent by inhibiting AGE generation by blocking reactive carbonyl species (RCS) like, methylglyoxal (MGO). Previous studies on antiglycating behavior of AG gave promising results in the treatment of diabetes-associated microvascular complications, but it was discontinued as it was found to be toxic at high concentrations (>10 mmol/L). The current article aims at glycation inhibition by conjugating gold nanoparticles (Gnp) with less concentration of AG (0.5-1.0 mmol/L). The HPLC results showed that AG-Gnp fairly hampers the formation of glycation adducts. Moreover, the in vivo studies revealed AG-Gnp mediated inhibition in the production of total-AGEs and -N ε -(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) in the diabetic rat model. This inhibition was found to be directly correlated with the antioxidant parameters, blood glucose, insulin, and glycosylated hemoglobin levels. Furthermore, the histopathology of AG-Gnp-treated rats showed good recovery in the damaged pancreatic tissue as compared to diabetic rats. We propose that this approach might increase the efficacy of AG at relatively low concentrations to avoid toxicity and might facilitate to overcome the hazardous actions of antiglycating drugs.

A Systematic Review of Dietary Influences on Fecal Microbiota Composition and Function among Healthy Humans 1-20 Years of Age

Diet is a key modulator of fecal microbiota composition and function. However, the influence of diet on the microbiota from toddlerhood to adolescence and young adulthood is less well studied than for infancy and adulthood. We aimed to complete a qualitative systematic review of the impacts of diet on the fecal microbiota of healthy humans 1-20 y of age. English-language articles, published after 2008, indexed in the PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane, Web of Science, and Scopus databases were searched using keywords and Medical Subject Headings terms. Quality assessment of included studies was conducted using the Quality Criteria Checklist derived from the Nutrition Evidence Library of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. A total of 973 articles were identified through database searching and 3 additional articles were included via cross-reference. Subsequent to de-duplication, 723 articles were screened by title and abstract, of which 709 were excluded based on inclusion criteria established a priori. The remaining 14 studies were independently screened by 2 reviewers for final inclusion. Included studies were published between 2010 and 2019 and included 8 comparative cross-sectional studies, 4 cross-sectional studies, 1 randomized crossover study, and 1 substudy of a randomized 2-period crossover trial. Associations of a diet rich in indigestible plant polysaccharides with Prevotella, or with an enterotype dominated by this genus, often comprised of the species Prevotella copri, were observed. In addition, associations of a high-fat and -sugar diet with Bacteroides, or with an enterotype dominated by this genus, were observed predominantly in comparative cross-sectional and cross-sectional studies spanning the ages of 1-15 y. This review identified a gap in the literature for ages 16-20 y. In addition, randomized controlled trials for dietary intervention are needed to move from association-based observations to causal relations between diet and microbiota composition and function. This systematic review was registered at www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero as CRD42020129824.

Dietary sugars and related endogenous advanced glycation end-products increase chromosomal DNA damage in WIL2-NS cells, measured using cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assay

This study investigated the effect of glucose and fructose, and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) on genome damage in WIL2-NS cells, measured using the cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome (CBMN-Cyt) assay. The effect of AGEs was investigated using the bovine serum albumin (AGE-BSA) model system induced either with glucose (Glu-BSA) or with fructose (Fru-BSA). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis showed higher Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML; 26.76 ± 1.09 nmol/mg BSA) levels in the Glu-BSA model. Nε-Carboxyethyllysine (CEL; 7.87 ± 0.19 nmol/mg BSA) and methylglyoxal-derived hydroimidazolone-1 (MG-H1; 69.77 ± 3.74 nmol/mg BSA) levels were higher in the Fru-BSA model. Genotoxic effects were measured using CBMN-Cyt assay biomarkers [binucleated(BN) cells with micronuclei (MNi), BN with nucleoplasmic bridges (NPBs) and BN with nuclear buds (NBuds)] following 9 days of treatment with either glucose, fructose, Glu-BSA or Fru-BSA. Fructose treatment exerted a significant genotoxic dose-response effect including increases of BN with MNi (R2 = 0.7704; P = 0.0031), BN with NPBs (R2 = 0.9311; P < 0.0001) and BN with NBuds (R2 = 0.7118; P = 0.0091) on cells, whereas the DNA damaging effects of glucose were less evident. High concentrations of AGEs (400-600 µg/ml) induced DNA damage; however, there was no effect on cytotoxicity indices (necrosis and apoptosis). In conclusion, this study demonstrates a potential link between physiologically high concentrations of reducing sugars or AGEs with increased chromosomal damage which is an important emerging aspect of the pathology that may be induced by diabetes. Ultimately, loss of genome integrity could accelerate the rate of ageing and increase the risk of age-related diseases over the long term. These findings indicate the need for further research on the effects of glycation on chromosomal instability and to establish whether this effect is replicated in humans in vivo.

Potential neurotoxicity of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and its oligomers: widespread substances in carbohydrate-containing foods

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) is present in numerous carbohydrate-containing consumer products and is readily converted into two oligomers (II and III) by acid-catalyzed transformations. Previous studies have demonstrated various undesirable effects of 5-HMF at relatively high concentrations. In this study, we demonstrate that 5-HMF and its two oligomers exert neurotoxic effects in vivo and in vitro. All three substances blocked the proliferation of PC12 and HT22 cells at the S or G2-M phase in dose- and time-dependent manners. In addition, [Ca²⁺]i and reactive oxygen species levels were both significantly increased by treatment with these substances at 100 μM, individually, compared with the control group. Although no motor and cognitive deficits are observed, 5-HMF and III can induce anxiety- and depression-like behavior in adolescent mice at administered doses of 0.15 mg kg^-1 and 1.5 mg kg^-1in vivo, which are close to or less than the reported 24 h dietary intake of 5-HMF in humans. Together, our findings suggest the need for close monitoring of the content of these substances in food, as well as the need for studies on the effects of long-term exposure to them.

Maillard Reaction Products of Stir Fried Hordei Fructus Germinatus Are Important for Its Efficacy in Treating Functional Dyspepsia

Hordei Fructus Germinatus (HFG) has been used as a traditional medicine to treat functional dyspepsia (FD) in China. Stir fried HFG (F-HFG) containing Maillard reaction products (MRPs) is used more widely than the raw HFG (R-HFG). However, the exact mechanisms in its functionality remain unclear. This article investigated the effect of R-HFG, F-HFG, and MRPs on brain-gut peptides, gut microbiota, and digestive enzymes using an FD animal mode. After administration of R-HFG, F-HFG, and MRPs, higher mRNA expression level of gastrin (GAS) and lower mRNA expression level of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) were exhibited in F-HFG and MRPs rats than R-HFG rats (P < .05). Furthermore, compared with the R-HFG group, the contents of motilin (MTL) and GAS showed an upward tendency, whereas the contents of VIP and chokcystokinin (CCK) showed a downward tendency in the F-HFG group. In addition, bacterial communities in the control, F-HFG, and MRPs groups clustered closely to one another, and bacterial communities in the model and recovery groups clustered together, whereas the bacterial communities in the R-HFG group were clustered into a category. Moreover, there were no apparent differences in brain-gut peptides and gut microbiota between the F-HFG and MRPs groups. However, after the oral administration of R-HFG, F-HFG, and MRPs, the level of digestive enzyme did not show a significant change as compared with the recovery group. These results indicated that the stronger effect of F-HFG could be attributed to the MRPs produced during stir frying, and MRPs possessed the effect of regulating brain-gut peptides and gut microbiota.

Glycation by saccharides of different molecular sizes affected the allergenicity of shrimp tropomyosin via epitope loss and the generation of advanced glycation end products

Tropomyosin is the most potent allergen of shrimp that can cause severe food allergy. However, to date, an effective approach to eliminate this allergenicity is still lacking. Glycation is a promising approach that can reduce the allergenicity of shrimp tropomyosin by destroying the epitopes; however, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are also generated during glycation, which can function as neoallergens to strengthen the allergenicity; therefore, it is hard to tell how the glycation of an allergen with different saccharides affects the allergenicity via epitope loss and neoallergen generation. This study was aimed at the elucidation of how the glycation of tropomyosin (TM) with saccharides of different molecular sizes (glucose, maltose, and maltotriose) affected the allergenicity through epitope loss and the generation of neoallergns that belonged to advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Saccharides of higher molecular sizes (maltotriose) could lead to higher glycated TM than saccharides of smaller molecular sizes (glucose and maltose). Compared with TM, the TM glycated by glucose (TM-G) and maltotriose (TM-MTS) had lower allergenicity and contributed to weaker mouse allergy symptoms; on the other hand, the TM glycated by maltose (TM-M) had no significant impact on the allergenicity due to the generation of AGE-related neoallergens, which might offset the glycation-induced epitope loss. The glycation of TM by maltotriose led to lower generation of AGE neoallergens (e.g. CML) than that in the cases of glucose and maltose; therefore, maltotriose could be applied to desensitize TM-induced food allergy through glycation, and this could be a potential immunotherapy for shrimp allergy patients.

Increased Hemoglobin Oxygen Affinity With 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Supports Cardiac Function During Severe Hypoxia

Acclimatization to hypoxia or high altitude involves physiological adaptation processes, to influence oxygen (O2) transport and utilization. Several natural products, including aromatic aldehydes and isothiocyanates stabilize the R-state of hemoglobin (Hb), increasing Hb-O2 affinity and Hb-O2 saturation. These products are a counter intuitive therapeutic strategy to increase O2 delivery during hypoxia. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) is well known Amadori compound formed during the Maillard reaction (the non-enzymatic browning and caramelization of carbohydrate-containing foods after thermal treatment), with well documented effects in Hb-O2 affinity. This study explores the therapeutic potential of 5-HMF on left ventricular (LV) cardiac function (LVCF) during hypoxia. Anesthetized Golden Syrian hamsters received 5-HMF i.v., at 100 mg/kg and were subjected to stepwise increased hypoxia (15, 10, and 5%) every 30 min. LVCF was assessed using a closed chest method with a miniaturized conductance catheter via continuous LV pressure-volume (PV) measurements. Heart hypoxic areas were studied using pimonidazole staining. 5-HMF improved cardiac indices, including stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO), ejection fraction (EF), and stroke work (SW) compared to the vehicle group. At 5% O2, SV, CO, EF, and SW were increased by 53, 42, 33, and 51% with 5-HMF relative to vehicle. Heart chronotropic activity was not statistically changed, suggesting that differences in LV-CF during hypoxia by 5-HMF were driven by volume dependent effects. Analysis of coronary blood flow and cardiac muscle metabolism suggest no direct pharmacological effects from 5-HMF, therefore these results can be attributed to 5-HMF-dependent increase in Hb-O2 affinity. These studies establish that naturally occurring aromatic aldehydes, such as 5-HMF, produce modification of hemoglobin oxygen affinity with promising therapeutic potential to increase O2 delivery during hypoxic hypoxia.

Characterization of key aroma-active compounds in four commercial egg flavor Sachimas with differing egg content

To characterize the aroma components of Sachima and provide insight into the influence of egg on the flavor of Sachima, the key aroma-active compounds in four commercial egg flavor Sachimas with different egg content, which named Premium, Classical, Whole egg, and Egg yolk, were identified using GC-MS-O analysis, aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) combined with sensory evaluation. In total, 75 volatile compounds were identified by GC-MS, including 26 compounds were revealed of having aroma activities by AEDA/GC-O. The major volatile compounds in Sachima were the aldehydes and heterocyclic compounds. The OAV further revealed the significant activity of eight key aroma-active compounds include 2-methylbutanal, 3-methylbutanal, hexanal, n-propylacetate, 2-pentylfuran, 2-ethylpyrazine, nonanal, and benzaldehyde. The OAV of 2-methylbutanal and 3-methylbutanal were much higher in Premium sample that has the most egg content, than that in other samples, whereas hexanal was the highest in Whole egg samples. The plot analyzed by PLS suggest that the Premium sample with more egg content was shown more complicated flavor than other kind of Sachima. Practical applications Sachima is a type of famous sweet Chinese traditional pastries. The flavor and texture of this kind of pastry were appreciated by all age group, especially for almost all elderly Chinese. Because Sachima is not only a suitable food that easy to chew, but a type of food which filled with childhood memory. Egg flavor of Sachima was always the most popular and classic flavor category. However, the characteristic aroma compounds of Sachima-one of the most important factor of the Sachima's quality-have been still uncovered and had not been identified yet, not to mentioned the comparison between different egg content in Sachima. What's more, GC-MS-O/AEDA analysis has been always a very effect and well-known method for aroma compounds analysis. This study trying to find the contribution of eggs to Sachima and the key aroma-active compounds of Sachima, so as to provide some useful information for practical production and flavor quality improving.

Use of Grape Pomace Phenolics to Counteract Endogenous and Exogenous Formation of Advanced Glycation End-Products

The increase in consumption of "ultra-processed" foods has raised attention because of the possible adverse effects deriving from the Maillard reaction leading to the formation of toxic advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) during food processing. Additionally, the increasing trend and consumption of sugar-added foods and sweetened beverages is related to the endogenous formation of the same toxic compounds. However, ultra-processing in the context of food technology can bring challenges as well as a wealth of opportunities. Indeed, re-processing of grape pomace, a by-product of winemaking, can yield phenolic-rich fractions that efficiently counteract the effects of AGEs. In this review, the process of endogenous and exogenous AGE formation is illustrated. Then, the ability of grape phenolics to act as inhibitors of AGE formation is presented, including the efficacy ranking of various individual compounds measured in vitro and the outcome of in vivo double-blinded randomized crossover trials designed to prove the efficacy of grape phenolics as inhibitors of protein carbonylation. Finally, a survey of model functional foods added with grape phenolics, either to lower the dietary load of AGEs or to deliver antiglycation agents in vivo is listed in order to highlight the opportunity to develop safe and tailor-made "anti-AGEs" food applications.

Specific Inhibition of CYP4A Alleviates Myocardial Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis Induced by Advanced Glycation End-Products

High exposure to advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) may induce cardiotoxicity. However, the effects and mechanisms remain to be further clarified. CYP4A plays an important role in the pathophysiological process of myocardial abnormalities by modulating oxidative stress and apoptosis (OS/Apop) signaling pathway. The present work aimed to investigate whether CYP4A mediates AGEs-induced myocardial injury. AGEs solution was administered intragastrically to C57BL/6 mice for 60 days, while the specific inhibitor of CYP4A, HET0016, was given from the 47th day via intraperitoneal injection for 2 weeks. Levels of OS/Apop in heart tissue were measured. The effects on the cell viability and apoptosis were detected in primary rat cardiomyocytes. To further investigate the mechanism, H9c2 cells were treated with HET0016 or small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against CYP4a mRNA before incubation with AGEs. Exposure to AGEs led to significantly increased expression of CYP4A and levels of OS/Apop in heart and H9c2 cells both in vivo and in vitro. The OS/Apop pathway was activated with increased expression of NOX2, p-JNK, and cleaved caspase-3 (c-caspase-3) and decreased expression of p-Akt and Bcl-xL both in vivo and in vitro. Specific CYP4A suppression by HET0016 or siRNA exerted significant protective effects by attenuating AGEs-induced OS/Apop pathways in vitro. Our results demonstrate that specific inhibition of CYP4A might be a potential therapeutic option for myocardial injury induced by AGEs.

Dietary advanced glycation end products and their relevance for human health

Due to their bioactivity and harmful potential, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are discussed to affect human health. AGEs are compounds formed endogenously in the human body andexogenously, especially, in foods while thermal processing. In contrast to endogenous AGEs, dietary AGEs are formed in much higher extent. However, their risk potential is also depending on absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination. For over 10 years an intense debate on the risk of dietary AGEs on human health is going on. On the one hand, studies provided evidence that dietary AGEs contribute to clinical outcomes. On the other hand, human studies failed to observe any association. Because it was not possible to draw a final conclusion, the call for new interdisciplinary approaches arose. In this review, we will give an overview on the current state of scientific knowledge in this field. In particular, we focus on (I) the occurrence of AGEs in foods and the daily uptake of AGEs, (II) contribution to endogenous levels and (III) the effect on health-/disease-related biomarkers in humans.

The effects of a maternal advanced glycation end product-rich diet on somatic features, reflex ontogeny and metabolic parameters of offspring mice

Maternal exposure to a Western type diet during pregnancy might predispose the offspring to manifestation of metabolic and behavioral disturbances in later life. The Western type diet contains large amounts of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). In humans and experimental rodents, the intake of an AGE-rich diet (AGE-RD) negatively affected glucose homeostasis, and initiated the production of reactive oxygen species. Rats consuming the AGE-RD presented changes in behavior. It remains unclear whether maternal intake of the AGE-RD might affect developmental plasticity in offspring. We examined early somatic (weight, incisor eruption, ear unfolding, and eye opening) and neuromotor development, oxidative status, insulin sensitivity (HOMA index) and locomotor activity assessed in PhenoTyper cages in the offspring of mice fed during pregnancy with either the AGE-RD (25% bread crusts/75% control chow) or control chow. Until weaning, the somatic development of offspring did not differ between the two dietary groups. The AGE-RD offspring manifested physiological reflexes (auditory startle, eye lid, ear twitch and righting reflexes) earlier. As young adults, the male offspring of the AGE-RD dams were heavier and less insulin sensitive compared with their control counterparts. The AGE-RD offspring showed higher locomotor activity during the active phase. Our data indicate that the maternal AGE-RD during pregnancy might accelerate the maturation of reflexes in offspring, predispose the male progeny to weight gain and affect their glucose homeostasis. These effects manifest without the direct consumption of the AGE-RD by offspring. Further work is needed to determine the mechanisms by which the maternal AGE-RD affects neurobehavioral pathways in offspring, as well as sex differences in adverse metabolic responses.

Parameters affecting 5-hydroxymethylfurfural exposure from beer

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is generated during food and beverage heating processes and/or storage. Its daily intake, estimated as 4-10 mg day^-1, is several orders of magnitude higher than other process contaminants. Beer can be of relevance to the evaluation of HMF exposure; however, the information concerning its occurrence in different types of beer and during product storage is scarce. Therefore, the major goal of this work was to assess the amounts of HMF in different commercial beers, as well as the impact of storage, to deepen knowledge about the contribution of beer to HMF exposure. Blonde beers presented a mean content of 4.29 ± 1.05 mg L^-1, which was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than those obtained for amber (6.84 ± 0.75 mg L^-1) and dark beers (6.99 ± 0.52 mg L^-1). Additionally, to study kinetic of HMF formation, fresh pilsner beers were stored at 30, 40 and 50°C during 40 days; a zero-order reaction was observed. The dependence of the rate constant on temperature was described by the Arrhenius equation and calculated activation energy was 101.85 kJ mol^-1. Storage can increase drastically HMF content, which means higher exposure for consumers. Thus, beer contribution to HMF exposure should not be neglected, since the intake of 1 L of beer entails a consumption of 4-7 mg of HMF or even more, depending on storage time and temperature.

Dietary Glycation Products Regulate Immune Homeostasis: Early Glycation Products Promote Prostate Cancer Cell Proliferation through Modulating Macrophages

SCOPE

Well-controlled glycation (generally limited to the early stages) has been proposed as a strategy to improve the physiochemical properties of dietary proteins, but the functional studies of glycation products are mostly on advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) rather than early glycation products (EGPs). Since cytokines are important modulators of various biological processes, this study aims to determine whether EGPs and AGEs affected immune homeostasis differentially and do so through modulating macrophage-derived factors.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Two systems (glycine-glucose and whey protein isolate (WPI)-glucose) are established to generate glycation products. They are applied to human macrophages (PMA-differentiated U937 cells), and cell viability and cytokine production are measured. Furthermore, EGPs, AGEs, and their conditioned medium (CM) from macrophages are applied to human prostate cancer (PCa) cells with different etiology (LNCaP and PC-3) and murine PCa cells (TRAMP-C2) to determine their direct and indirect effects on PCa cell proliferation. EGPs enhance the production of immunosuppressive cytokines, and this enhancement is associated with increased PCa cell proliferation. In contrast, AGEs inhibit macrophages to secret cytokines, but increase PCa cell proliferation directly.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that EGPs promote the prostate tumor proliferation indirectly through modulating macrophages, while AGEs have a direct effect.

Anti-inflammatory effect of glucose-lysine Maillard reaction products on intestinal inflammation model in vivo

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are chronic disorders that are characterized by intestinal epithelial inflammation and injury. Currently, the most employed therapies are antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs; however, the side effects limit long-term effectiveness. We evaluated the impact of glucose-lysine Maillard reaction products (Glc-Lys MRPs) on colitis, induced in rats by an administration of 5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in drinking water. Glc-Lys MRPs ameliorate DSS-induced colitis, as determined by a decrease in disease index activity, colon weight/length ratio, nitric oxide levels in serum, recovery of body weight loss, colon length and serum lysozyme levels. Furthermore, Glc-Lys MRPs increase the glutathione content and the activity of glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase, and inhibit lipid peroxidation and myeloperoxidase activity in colon tissues. In particular, Glc-Lys MRPs suppress the mRNA level of the inflammatory cytokines and nuclear factor-κB in colon tissues. This study suggests the potential of Glc-Lys MRPs in preventing or treating IBDs.

Assessing the effect of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural on selected components of immune responses in mice immunised with ovalbumin

BACKGROUND

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) is one of the most important products of the Maillard reaction. In recent years, many profitable biological effects of this compound have been demonstrated. This study sought to elucidate the anti-allergic effect of 5-HMF by investigating some selected components of the immune response in BALB/c mice immunised with ovalbumin (OVA).

RESULTS

Immunised animals had an increased level of serum total and OVA-specific antibodies when compared to the control (P < 0.01).We found that the OVA-induced increase in serum IgE and OVA-specific IgE were significantly suppressed in the groups treated with 5-HMF (P < 0.05). Moreover, interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) were significantly reduced in a dose-independent manner when compared to the sensitised group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

5-HMF inhibited the up-regulation of total and OVA-specific IgE through the suppression of the Th2-type immune response in immunised BALB/c mice. 5-HMF could therefore be a novel therapeutic approach for the prevention of IgE-mediated allergic diseases. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a family of compounds of diverse chemical nature that are the products of nonenzymatic reactions between reducing sugars and proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids. AGEs bind to one or more of their multiple receptors (RAGE) found on a variety of cell types and elicit an array of biologic responses. In this review, we have summarized the data on the nature of AGEs and issues associated with their measurements, their receptors, and changes in their expression under different physiologic and disease states. Last, we have used this information to prescribe lifestyle choices to modulate AGE-RAGE cycle for better health.

Advanced Glycation End Products, Inflammation, and Chronic Metabolic Diseases: Links in a Chain?

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a diverse group of compounds produced when reducing sugars react with proteins or other compounds to form glycosylated molecules. AGEs may form endogenously, and glycation of molecules may negatively affect their function. AGEs may also be consumed in food form with dietary AGEs reported to be particularly high in foods treated with high heat: baked, broiled, grilled, and fried foods. Whether dietary AGEs are absorbed in significant quantities and whether they are harmful if absorbed is a question under current debate. The American Diabetes Association makes no recommendation regarding avoidance of these foods, but many researchers are concerned that they may be pro-inflammatory and way worsen cardiac function, kidney function, diabetes and its complications and may even contribute to obesity.

Relationship between HMF intake and SMF formation in vivo: An animal and human study

SCOPE

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is a furanic compound produced in heat-processed foods by nonenzymatic browning reactions. HMF has been demonstrated to be hepato- and nephrotoxic in animals with a link to its metabolite 5-sulfooxymethylfurfural (SMF). To date little is known about either the formation of SMF from ingested HMF or the formation of DNA adducts in animals or human beings.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To assess SMF in vivo formation, we first performed a study in mice treated with high/low doses of oral HMF. We found increased concentrations of SMF in plasma and DNA SMF-adducts in leukocytes, hepatic tissue, and kidneys by means of LC-MS/MS, but no spatial formation in such tissues was observed by MALDI-MS imaging technology due to low sensitivity. In a second experiment, we measured the exposure to HMF in a Spanish preadolescent population. We analyzed the concentration of HMF metabolites (plasma, urine) and measured, for the first time, the presence of SMF in plasma and DNA SMF-adducts in leukocytes.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first evidence that oral HMF is readily transformed into SMF in vivo, giving rise to the formation of DNA adducts in a direct relation with HMF intake, both in animals and human beings.

Effect of selected spices on chemical and sensory markers in fortified rye-buckwheat cakes

The aim of this study was to find out the effect of selected spices on chemical and sensorial markers in cakes formulated on rye and light buckwheat flour fortified with spices. Among collection of spices, rye-buckwheat cakes fortified individually with cloves, nutmeg, allspice, cinnamon, vanilla, and spice mix revealed the highest sensory characteristics and overall quality. Cakes fortified with cloves, allspice, and spice mix showed the highest antioxidant capacity, total phenolics, rutin, and almost threefold higher available lysine contents. The reduced furosine content as well as free and total fluorescent intermediatory compounds were observed as compared to nonfortified cakes. The FAST index was significantly lowered in all cakes enriched with spices, especially with cloves, allspice, and mix. In contrast, browning index increased in compare to cakes without spices. It can be suggested that clove, allspice, vanilla, and spice mix should be used for production of safety and good quality cakes.

Characterization of the quality of novel rye-buckwheat ginger cakes by chemical markers and antioxidant capacity

The total phenolics and flavonoids, rutin, early, advanced and finalMaillard reaction products, and antioxidative capacity determined against 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) radical cation and superoxide anion radicals were used for the characterization of the quality of novel rye-buckwheat ginger cakes enriched with rutin (quercetin rutinoside). The cakes were prepared substituting 30 % of rye flour by light buckwheat flour or flour from roasted buckwheat dehulled grains and employing a dough fermentation-like incubation step. Enrichment of ginger cakes with rutin showed protective effect on lysine blockage, improved antioxidant properties, inhibited the formation of furosine and free fluorescent compounds thus stimulating the Maillard reaction progress towards melanoidin formation. The loss of the nutritional quality of cakes enriched with rutin was related to the formation of fluorescent compounds linked to protein and carboxymethyllysine at an advanced stage of the Maillard reaction. It can be concluded that free fluorescence intermediatory compounds, carboxymethyllysine and browning are the best chemical markers for the characterization of the quality of this novel type of ginger cakes. This study also indicates that rye-buckwheat ginger cakes enriched with rutin can be recommended for wider consumption since daily consumption of 250 g of these cakes may have a prophylactic or therapeutic effect corresponding to typical pharmacological drugs with rutin as the active component.

Contribution of dietary advanced glycation end products (AGE) to circulating AGE: role of dietary fat

The purpose of this pilot study was to determine whether macronutrient content (low-fat v. high-fat diet) influences an indicator of advanced glycation end products (AGE), N(ε) carboxymethyl-lysine (CML), in the context of a 1-d, high-AGE diet. The effect of the diets on inflammatory markers was also assessed. A total of nineteen overweight and obese adults (nine men and ten women) without known disease were recruited to participate in a crossover challenge of a high-fat, high-AGE (HFHA) and low-fat, high-AGE (LFHA) diet. In each phase patients had fasting blood drawn, followed by consumption of a high-fat or low-fat breakfast test meal, then three postprandial blood draws at 1, 2 and 3 h after consuming the test meal. After consuming high-AGE meals for the remainder of the day, participants returned the next day for a follow-up analysis. A different pattern in the 3-h post-meal CML and soluble receptor for AGE response to the two diets was observed (P=0·01 and 0·05, respectively). No change in serum CML was observed following consumption of a LFHA breakfast (535 (25th-75th percentile 451-790) to 495 (25th-75th percentile 391-682) ng/ml; P=0·36), whereas a rise in CML occurred after the HFHA breakfast (463 (25th-75th percentile 428-664) to 578 (25th-75th percentile 474-865) ng/ml; P=0·05). High sensitivity C-reactive protein and high molecular weight adiponectin were not affected by either diet. These findings suggest that dietary CML may not be as important in influencing serum CML as other dietary factors. In addition, acute exposure to dietary CML may not influence inflammation in adults without diabetes or kidney disease. This is contrary to previous findings.

Influence of home cooking conditions on Maillard reaction products in beef

The influence of home cooking methods on the generation of Maillard reaction products (MRP) in beef was investigated. Grilling and frying hamburgers to an internal temperature below 90 °C mainly generated furosine. When the temperature reached 90 °C and 100 °C, furosine content decreased by 36% and fluorescent compounds increased by up to 98%. Baking meat at 300 °C, the most severe heat treatment studied, resulted in the formation of carboxymethyllysine. Boiling in water caused very low MRP formation. Acrylamide concentrations in grilled, fried or baked meat were extremely low. Home cooking conditions leading to low MRP generation and pleasant colours were obtained and could be used to guide diabetic and chronic renal patients on how to reduce their carboxymethyllysine intake.

Dietary CML-enriched protein induces functional arterial aging in a RAGE-dependent manner in mice

SCOPE

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are endogenously produced and are present in food. N(ε)-carboxymethyllysine (CML) is an endothelial activator via the receptor for AGEs (RAGEs) and is a major dietary AGE. This work investigated the effects of a CML-enriched diet and RAGE involvement in aortic aging in mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

After 9 months of a control diet or CML-enriched diets (50, 100, or 200 μg(CML)/g of food), endothelium-dependent relaxation, RAGE, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, and sirtuin-1 expression, pulse wave velocity and elastin disruption were measured in aortas of wild-type or RAGE(-/-) male C57BL/6 mice. Compared to the control diet, endothelium-dependent relaxation was reduced in the wild-type mice fed the CML-enriched diet (200 μg(CML)/g) (66.8 ± 12.26 vs. 94.3 ± 2.6%, p < 0.01). RAGE and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (p < 0.05) expression were increased in the aortic wall. RAGE(-/-) mice were protected against CML-enriched diet-induced endothelial dysfunction. Compared to control diet, the CML-enriched diet (200 μg(CML)/g) increased the aortic pulse wave velocity (86.6 ± 41.1 vs. 251.4 ± 41.1 cm/s, p < 0.05) in wild-type animals. Elastin disruption was found to a greater extent in the CML-fed mice (p < 0.05). RAGE(-/-) mice fed the CML-enriched diet were protected from aortic stiffening.

CONCLUSION

Chronic CML ingestion induced endothelial dysfunction, arterial stiffness and aging in a RAGE-dependent manner.