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van der Veer MAA, de Haan TR, Franken LGW, Groenendaal F, Dijk PH, de Boode WP, Simons S, Dijkman KP, van Straaten HL, Rijken M, Cools F, Nuytemans DHGM, van Kaam AH, Bijleveld YA, Mathôt RAA. Predictive Performance of a Gentamicin Pharmacokinetic Model in Term Neonates with Perinatal Asphyxia Undergoing Controlled Therapeutic Hypothermia. Ther Drug Monit 2024; 46:376-383. [PMID: 38287875 PMCID: PMC11078285 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000001166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Model validation procedures are crucial when population pharmacokinetic (PK) models are used to develop dosing algorithms and to perform model-informed precision dosing. We have previously published a population PK model describing the PK of gentamicin in term neonates with perinatal asphyxia during controlled therapeutic hypothermia (TH), which showed altered gentamicin clearance during the hypothermic phase dependent on gestational age and weight. In this study, the predictive performance and generalizability of this model were assessed using an independent data set of neonates with perinatal asphyxia undergoing controlled TH. METHODS The external data set contained a subset of neonates included in the prospective observational multicenter PharmaCool Study. Predictive performance was assessed by visually inspecting observed-versus-predicted concentration plots and calculating bias and precision. In addition, simulation-based diagnostics, model refitting, and bootstrap analyses were performed. RESULTS The external data set included 323 gentamicin concentrations of 39 neonates. Both the model-building and external data set included neonates from multiple centers. The original gentamicin PK model predicted the observed gentamicin concentrations with adequate accuracy and precision during all phases of controlled TH. Model appropriateness was confirmed with prediction-corrected visual predictive checks and normalized prediction distribution error analyses. Model refitting to the merged data set (n = 86 neonates with 935 samples) showed accurate estimation of PK parameters. CONCLUSIONS The results of this external validation study justify the generalizability of the gentamicin dosing recommendations made in the original study for neonates with perinatal asphyxia undergoing controlled TH (5 mg/kg every 36 or 24 h with gestational age 36-41 and 42 wk, respectively) and its applicability in model-informed precision dosing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlotte A. A. van der Veer
- Department of Pharmacy & Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Timo R. de Haan
- Department of Neonatology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Linda G. W. Franken
- Department of Pharmacy & Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Floris Groenendaal
- Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peter H. Dijk
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Groningen, Beatrix Children's Hospital, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Willem P. de Boode
- Department of Neonatology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Amalia Children's Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sinno Simons
- Department of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Koen P. Dijkman
- Department of Neonatology, Máxima Medical Center Veldhoven, Veldhoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - Monique Rijken
- Department of Neonatology, Willem-Alexander Children's Hospital, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands; and
| | - Filip Cools
- Department of Neonatology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Debbie H. G. M. Nuytemans
- Department of Neonatology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anton H. van Kaam
- Department of Neonatology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Yuma. A. Bijleveld
- Department of Pharmacy & Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ron A. A. Mathôt
- Department of Pharmacy & Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Osman MF, Dawoud TH, Siwji ZA, Abu-Sa'da OS. Assessment of gentamicin dosing and monitoring in neonates: A single center experience. J Neonatal Perinatal Med 2024; 17:91-100. [PMID: 38189717 DOI: 10.3233/npm-230170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gentamicin is a commonly used medication in NICUs. It is known to have ototoxic & nephrotoxic side effects. To date there is no consensus about dosing regimen in different institutions. Our study aims to evaluate the Neofax® dosing regimen for gentamicin in neonatal early onset sepsis in relation to trough level before the second dose and its association with the incidence of gentamicin side effects, namely hearing impairment/loss and acute kidney injury. METHODS Retrospective chart review of newborns admitted to Tawam hospital NICU (June 2019-May 2020) who received gentamicin for early onset sepsis (≤72 hours old). Trough levels before the second dose at 24,36 and 48 hours were reviewed (≥1 mg/L is high). Excluded patients with renal risk factors. Side effects (hearing impairment, acute renal injury) were also assessed. RESULTS Total of 265 infants were included, among whom 149 patients received gentamicin at 24 hours interval, 99 at 36 and 17 at 48 hours interval. Trough level was high in 76% (P = 0.022), 65% (P = 0.127), and 53% (P = 0.108) of patients who received gentamicin at 24, 36, and 48 hours, respectively. Hearing screening was normal in 99.2% of patients, while 2 patients failed the test (Both with normal trough levels). No patients in our study developed renal injury related to gentamicin use. CONCLUSION Neofax® gentamicin dosing often results in high trough levels, especially in late preterm/term infants. This study found no correlation between high trough levels and hearing impairment upon discharge or acute kidney injury. Further studies with larger sample size are recommended.
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Zhang W, Zhang Q, Cao Z, Zheng L, Hu W. Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling in Neonates: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2765. [PMID: 38140105 PMCID: PMC10747965 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15122765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Rational drug use in special populations is a clinical problem that doctors and pharma-cists must consider seriously. Neonates are the most physiologically immature and vulnerable to drug dosing. There is a pronounced difference in the anatomical and physiological profiles be-tween neonates and older people, affecting the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs in vivo, ultimately leading to changes in drug concentration. Thus, dose adjustments in neonates are necessary to achieve adequate therapeutic concentrations and avoid drug toxicity. Over the past few decades, modeling and simulation techniques, especially physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling, have been increasingly used in pediatric drug development and clinical therapy. This rigorously designed and verified model can effectively compensate for the deficiencies of clinical trials in neonates, provide a valuable reference for clinical research design, and even replace some clinical trials to predict drug plasma concentrations in newborns. This review introduces previous findings regarding age-dependent physiological changes and pathological factors affecting neonatal pharmacokinetics, along with their research means. The application of PBPK modeling in neonatal pharmacokinetic studies of various medications is also reviewed. Based on this, we propose future perspectives on neonatal PBPK modeling and hope for its broader application.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Liang Zheng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230601, China; (W.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Z.C.)
| | - Wei Hu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230601, China; (W.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Z.C.)
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Lugli L, Garetti E, Goffredo BM, Candia F, Crestani S, Spada C, Guidotti I, Bedetti L, Miselli F, Della Casa EM, Roversi MF, Simeoli R, Cairoli S, Merazzi D, Lago P, Iughetti L, Berardi A. Continuous Fentanyl Infusion in Newborns with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy Treated with Therapeutic Hypothermia: Background, Aims, and Study Protocol for Time-Concentration Profiles. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2395. [PMID: 37760835 PMCID: PMC10525845 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11092395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is the standard of care for newborns with moderate to severe hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). Discomfort and pain during treatment are common and may affect the therapeutic efficacy of TH. Opioid sedation and analgesia (SA) are generally used in clinical practice, and fentanyl is one of the most frequently administered drugs. However, although fentanyl's pharmacokinetics (PKs) may be altered by hypothermic treatment, the PK behavior of this opioid drug in cooled newborns with HIE has been poorly investigated. The aim of this phase 1 study protocol (Trial ID: FentanylTH; EUDRACT number: 2020-000836-23) is to evaluate the fentanyl time-concentration profiles of full-term newborns with HIE who have been treated with TH. Newborns undergoing TH receive a standard fentanyl regimen (2 mcg/Kg of fentanyl as a loading dose, followed by a continuous infusion-1 mcg/kg/h-during the 72 h of TH and subsequent rewarming). Fentanyl plasma concentrations before bolus administration, at the end of the loading dose, and 24-48-72-96 h after infusion are measured. The median, maximum, and minimum plasma concentrations, together with drug clearance, are determined. This study will explore the fentanyl time-concentration profiles of cooled, full-term newborns with HIE, thereby helping to optimize the fentanyl SA dosing regimen during TH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Licia Lugli
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
| | - Elisabetta Garetti
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
| | - Bianca Maria Goffredo
- Division of Metabolic Diseases and Drug Biology, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Scientific Institute for hospitalization and care (IRCCS), 00100 Rome, Italy; (B.M.G.); (R.S.); (S.C.)
| | - Francesco Candia
- Pediatrics Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (F.C.); (S.C.); (L.I.)
| | - Sara Crestani
- Pediatrics Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (F.C.); (S.C.); (L.I.)
| | - Caterina Spada
- Neonatal Unit, Women’s and Children’s Department, Bufalini Hospital of Cesena, 47521 Cesena, Italy;
| | - Isotta Guidotti
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
| | - Luca Bedetti
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
| | - Francesca Miselli
- PhD Program in Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41100 Modena, Italy;
| | - Elisa Muttini Della Casa
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
| | - Maria Federica Roversi
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
| | - Raffaele Simeoli
- Division of Metabolic Diseases and Drug Biology, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Scientific Institute for hospitalization and care (IRCCS), 00100 Rome, Italy; (B.M.G.); (R.S.); (S.C.)
| | - Sara Cairoli
- Division of Metabolic Diseases and Drug Biology, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, Scientific Institute for hospitalization and care (IRCCS), 00100 Rome, Italy; (B.M.G.); (R.S.); (S.C.)
| | - Daniele Merazzi
- Neonatal Unit, Women’s and Children’s Department, Valduce Hospital, 22100 Como, Italy;
| | - Paola Lago
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Department, Ca’ Foncello Hospital, 31100 Treviso, Italy;
| | - Lorenzo Iughetti
- Pediatrics Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (F.C.); (S.C.); (L.I.)
| | - Alberto Berardi
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Women’s and Children’s Health Department, University Hospital of Modena, 41100 Modena, Italy; (E.G.); (I.G.); (L.B.); (E.M.D.C.); (M.F.R.); (A.B.)
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Hollander EM, van Tuinen EL, Schölvinck EH, Bergman KA, Bourgonje AR, Gracchi V, Kneyber MCJ, Touw DJ, Mian P. Evaluation of Dosing Guidelines for Gentamicin in Neonates and Children. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12050810. [PMID: 37237713 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12050810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Although aminoglycosides are frequently prescribed to neonates and children, the ability to reach effective and safe target concentrations with the currently used dosing regimens remains unclear. This study aims to evaluate the target attainment of the currently used dosing regimens for gentamicin in neonates and children. We conducted a retrospective single-center cohort study in neonates and children receiving gentamicin between January 2019 and July 2022, in the Beatrix Children's Hospital. The first gentamicin concentration used for therapeutic drug monitoring was collected for each patient, in conjunction with information on dosing and clinical status. Target trough concentrations were ≤1 mg/L for neonates and ≤0.5 mg/L for children. Target peak concentrations were 8-12 mg/L for neonates and 15-20 mg/L for children. In total, 658 patients were included (335 neonates and 323 children). Trough concentrations were outside the target range in 46.2% and 9.9% of neonates and children, respectively. Peak concentrations were outside the target range in 46.0% and 68.7% of neonates and children, respectively. In children, higher creatinine concentrations were associated with higher gentamicin trough concentrations. This study corroborates earlier observational studies showing that, with a standard dose, drug concentration targets were met in only approximately 50% of the cases. Our findings show that additional parameters are needed to improve target attainment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther M Hollander
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Eline L van Tuinen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth H Schölvinck
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Beatrix Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Klasien A Bergman
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Beatrix Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arno R Bourgonje
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Valentina Gracchi
- Division of Pediatric Nephrology, Beatrix Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Martin C J Kneyber
- Division of Peadiatric Critical Care Medicine, Department of Paediatrics, Beatrix Children's Hospital Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Daan J Touw
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Groningen Research Institute for Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Paola Mian
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
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Hodiamont CJ, van den Broek AK, de Vroom SL, Prins JM, Mathôt RAA, van Hest RM. Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Gentamicin in Various Patient Populations and Consequences for Optimal Dosing for Gram-Negative Infections: An Updated Review. Clin Pharmacokinet 2022; 61:1075-1094. [PMID: 35754071 PMCID: PMC9349143 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-022-01143-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Gentamicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic with a small therapeutic window that is currently used primarily as part of short-term empirical combination therapy. Gentamicin dosing schemes still need refinement, especially for subpopulations where pharmacokinetics can differ from pharmacokinetics in the general adult population: obese patients, critically ill patients, paediatric patients, neonates, elderly patients and patients on dialysis. This review summarizes the clinical pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in these patient populations and the consequences for optimal dosing of gentamicin for infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, highlighting new insights from the last 10 years. In this period, several new population pharmacokinetic studies have focused on these subpopulations, providing insights into the typical values of the most relevant pharmacokinetic parameters, the variability of these parameters and possible explanations for this variability, although unexplained variability often remains high. Both dosing schemes and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) targets varied widely between these studies. A gentamicin starting dose of 7 mg/kg based on total body weight (or on adjusted body weight in obese patients) appears to be the optimal strategy for increasing the probability of target attainment (PTA) after the first administration for the most commonly used PK/PD targets in adults and children older than 1 month, including critically ill patients. However, evidence that increasing the PTA results in higher efficacy is lacking; no studies were identified that show a correlation between estimated or predicted PK/PD target attainment and clinical success. Although it is unclear if performing therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) for optimization of the PTA is of clinical value, it is recommended in patients with highly variable pharmacokinetics, including patients from all subpopulations that are critically ill (such as elderly, children and neonates) and patients on intermittent haemodialysis. In addition, TDM for optimization of the dosing interval, targeting a trough concentration of at least < 2 mg/L but preferably < 0.5–1 mg/L, has proven to reduce nephrotoxicity and is therefore recommended in all patients receiving more than one dose of gentamicin. The usefulness of the daily area under the plasma concentration–time curve for predicting nephrotoxicity should be further investigated. Additionally, more research is needed on the optimal PK/PD targets for efficacy in the clinical situations in which gentamicin is currently used, that is, as monotherapy for urinary tract infections or as part of short-term combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caspar J Hodiamont
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Annemieke K van den Broek
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne L de Vroom
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan M Prins
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ron A A Mathôt
- Hospital Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Reinier M van Hest
- Hospital Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Matcha S, Raj EA, Mahadevan R, Raju AP, Rajesh V, Lewis LE, Mallayasamy S. Pharmacometric approach to assist dosage regimen design in neonates undergoing therapeutic hypothermia. Pediatr Res 2022; 92:249-254. [PMID: 34493833 PMCID: PMC9411058 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-021-01714-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is the treatment of choice for neonates diagnosed with perinatal asphyxia (PA). Dosing recommendations of various therapeutic agents including antimicrobials were not specifically available for the neonates undergoing TH. METHODS A systematic search methodology was used to identify pharmacokinetic (PK) studies of antimicrobials during TH. Antimicrobials with multiple PK studies were identified to create a generalizable PK model. Pharmacometric simulations were performed using the PUMAS software platform to reproduce the results of published studies. A suitable model that could reproduce the results of all other published studies was identified. With the help of a generalizable model, an optimal dosage regimen was designed considering the important covariates of the identified model. RESULTS With the systematic search, only gentamicin had multiple PK reports during TH. A generalizable model was identified and the model predictions could match the reported/observed concentrations of publications. Birth weight and serum creatinine were the significant covariates influencing the PK of gentamicin in neonates. A dosage nomogram was designed using pharmacometric simulations to maintain gentamicin concentrations below 10 μg/mL at peak and below 2 μg/mL at trough. CONCLUSIONS A generalizable PK model for gentamicin during TH in neonates was identified. Using the model, a dosing nomogram for gentamicin was designed. IMPACT Dosing guidelines for antimicrobials during TH in neonates is lacking. This is the first study to identify the generalizable model for gentamicin during TH in neonates. Nomogram, proposed in the study, will aid the clinicians to individualize gentamicin dosing regimen for neonates considering the birth weight and serum creatinine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saikumar Matcha
- grid.411639.80000 0001 0571 5193Department of Pharmacy Practice, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka India
| | - Elstin Anbu Raj
- grid.411639.80000 0001 0571 5193Department of Pharmacy Practice, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka India
| | | | - Arun Prasath Raju
- grid.411639.80000 0001 0571 5193Department of Pharmacy Practice, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka India
| | - V Rajesh
- grid.411639.80000 0001 0571 5193Department of Pharmacy Practice, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka India
| | - Leslie Edward Lewis
- grid.411639.80000 0001 0571 5193Department of Paediatrics, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka India
| | - Surulivelrajan Mallayasamy
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka, India.
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Tiozzo C, Mukhopadhyay S. Noninfectious influencers of early-onset sepsis biomarkers. Pediatr Res 2022; 91:425-431. [PMID: 34802035 PMCID: PMC8818022 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-021-01861-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Diagnostic tests for sepsis aim to either detect the infectious agent (such as microbiological cultures) or detect host markers that commonly change in response to an infection (such as C-reactive protein). The latter category of tests has advantages compared to culture-based methods, including a quick turnaround time and in some cases lower requirements for blood samples. They also provide information on the immune response of the host, a critical determinant of clinical outcome. However, they do not always differentiate nonspecific host inflammation from true infection and can inadvertently lead to antibiotic overuse. Multiple noninfectious conditions unique to neonates in the first days after birth can lead to inflammatory marker profiles that mimic those seen among infected infants. Our goal was to review noninfectious conditions and patient characteristics that alter host inflammatory markers commonly used for the diagnosis of early-onset sepsis. Recognizing these conditions can focus the use of biomarkers on patients most likely to benefit while avoiding scenarios that promote false positives. We highlight approaches that may improve biomarker performance and emphasize the need to use patient outcomes, in addition to conventional diagnostic performance analysis, to establish clinical utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Tiozzo
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, New York University, Langone Health, New York City, New York, United States
| | - Sagori Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA. .,Center for Pediatric Clinical Effectiveness, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Scutellarin ameliorates neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy associated with GAP43-dependent signaling pathway. Chin Med 2021; 16:105. [PMID: 34663387 PMCID: PMC8524967 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-021-00517-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) refers to the perinatal asphyxia caused by the cerebral hypoxic-ischemic injury. The current study was aimed at investigating the therapeutic efficacy of Scutellarin (Scu) administration on neurological impairments induced by hypoxic-ischemic injury and exploring the underlying mechanisms. Methods Primary cortical neurons were cultured and subjected to oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD), and then treated with Scu administration. The growth status of neurons was observed by immunofluorescence staining of TUJ1 and TUNEL. Besides, the mRNA level of growth-associated protein 43 (GAP43) in OGD neurons with Scu treatment was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). To further verify the role of GAP43 in Scu treatment, GAP43 siRNA and knockout were applied in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, behavioral evaluations were performed to elucidate the function of GAP43 in the Scu-ameliorated long-term neurological impairments caused by HI insult. The underlying biological mechanism of Scu treatment was further elucidated via network pharmacological analysis. Finally, the interactive genes with GAP43 were identified by Gene MANIA and further validated by qRT-PCR. Results Our data demonstrated that Scu treatment increased the number of neurons and axon growth, and suppressed cell apoptosis in vitro. And the expression of GAP43 was downregulated after OGD, but reversed by Scu administration. Besides, GAP43 silencing aggravated the Scu-ameliorated neuronal death and axonal damage. Meanwhile, GAP43 knockout enlarged brain infarct area and deteriorated the cognitive and motor dysfunctions of HI rats. Further, network pharmacological analysis revealed the drug targets of Scu participated in such biological processes as neuronal death and regulation of neuronal death, and apoptosis-related pathways. GAP43 exhibited close relationship with PTN, JAK2 and STAT3, and GAP43 silencing upregulated the levels of PTN, JAK2 and STAT3. Conclusions Collectively, our findings revealed Scu treatment attenuated long-term neurological impairments after HI by suppressing neuronal death and enhancing neurite elongation through GAP43-dependent pathway. The crucial role of Scutellarin in neuroprotection provided a novel possible therapeutic agent for the treatment of neonatal HIE. Graphic abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13020-021-00517-z.
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Pharmacokinetics of Antibiotics in Pediatric Intensive Care: Fostering Variability to Attain Precision Medicine. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10101182. [PMID: 34680763 PMCID: PMC8532953 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10101182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Children show important developmental and maturational changes, which may contribute greatly to pharmacokinetic (PK) variability observed in pediatric patients. These PK alterations are further enhanced by disease-related, non-maturational factors. Specific to the intensive care setting, such factors include critical illness, inflammatory status, augmented renal clearance (ARC), as well as therapeutic interventions (e.g., extracorporeal organ support systems or whole-body hypothermia [WBH]). This narrative review illustrates the relevance of both maturational and non-maturational changes in absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) applied to antibiotics. It hereby provides a focused assessment of the available literature on the impact of critical illness—in general, and in specific subpopulations (ARC, extracorporeal organ support systems, WBH)—on PK and potential underexposure in children and neonates. Overall, literature discussing antibiotic PK alterations in pediatric intensive care is scarce. Most studies describe antibiotics commonly monitored in clinical practice such as vancomycin and aminoglycosides. Because of the large PK variability, therapeutic drug monitoring, further extended to other antibiotics, and integration of model-informed precision dosing in clinical practice are suggested to optimise antibiotic dose and exposure in each newborn, infant, or child during intensive care.
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11
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McPherson C, Frymoyer A, Ortinau CM, Miller SP, Groenendaal F. Management of comfort and sedation in neonates with neonatal encephalopathy treated with therapeutic hypothermia. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2021; 26:101264. [PMID: 34215538 PMCID: PMC8900710 DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2021.101264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ensuring comfort for neonates undergoing therapeutic hypothermia (TH) after neonatal encephalopathy (NE) exemplifies a vital facet of neonatal neurocritical care. Physiologic markers of stress are frequently present in these neonates. Non-pharmacologic comfort measures form the foundation of care, benefitting both the neonate and parents. Pharmacological sedatives may also be indicated, yet have the potential to both mitigate and intensify the neurotoxicity of a hypoxic-ischemic insult. Morphine represents current standard of care with a history of utilization and extensive pharmacokinetic data to guide safe and effective dosing. Dexmedetomidine, as an alternative to morphine, has several appealing characteristics, including neuroprotective effects in animal models; robust pharmacokinetic studies in neonates with NE treated with TH are required to ensure a safe and effective standard dosing approach. Future studies in neonates treated with TH must address comfort, adverse events, and long-term outcomes in the context of specific sedation practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher McPherson
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Adam Frymoyer
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, 750 Welch Road, Suite 315, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA.
| | - Cynthia M. Ortinau
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Steven P. Miller
- Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children and the University of Toronto, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Floris Groenendaal
- Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht and Utrecht University, Lundlaan 6, 3584 EA, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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Xiong LL, Tan YX, Du RL, Peng Y, Xue LL, Liu J, Al-Hawwas M, Bobrovskaya L, Liu DH, Chen L, Wang TH, Zhou XF. Effect of Sutellarin on Neurogenesis in Neonatal Hypoxia–Ischemia Rat Model: Potential Mechanisms of Action. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2021; 49:677-703. [PMID: 33704029 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x21500312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the therapeutic efficacy of Scutellarin (SCU) on neurite growth and neurological functional recovery in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic (HI) rats. Primary cortical neurons were cultured to detect the effect of SCU on cell viability of neurons under oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Double immunofluorescence staining of Tuj1 and TUNEL then observed the neurite growth and cell apoptosis in vitro,and double immunofluorescence staining of NEUN and TUNEL was performed to examine the neuronal apoptosis and cell apoptosis in brain tissues after HI in vivo. Pharmacological efficacy of SCU was also evaluated in HI rats by neurobehavioral tests, triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining, Hematoxylin and eosin staining and Nissl staining. Astrocytes and microglia expression in damaged brain tissues were detected by immunostaining of GFAP and Iba1. A quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot were applied to investigate the genetic expression changes and the protein levels of autophagy-related proteins in the injured cortex and hippocampus after HI. We found that SCU administration preserved cell viability, promoted neurite outgrowth and suppressed apoptosis of neurons subjected to OGD both in vitroand in vivo. Meanwhile, 20 mg/kg SCU treatment improved neurological functions and decreased the expression of astrocytes and microglia in the cortex and hippocampus of HI rats. Additionally, SCU treatment depressed the elevated levels of autophagy-related proteins and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) in both cortex and hippocampus. This study demonstrated the potential therapeutic efficacy of SCU by enhancing neurogenesis and restoring long-term neurological dysfunctions, which might be associated with p75NTR depletion in HI rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu-Lin Xiong
- Institute of Neurological Disease, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China
- Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 550000, P. R. China
| | - Ya-Xin Tan
- Animal Zoology Department, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, P. R. China
| | - Ruo-Lan Du
- Animal Zoology Department, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, P. R. China
| | - Yuan Peng
- Animal Zoology Department, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, P. R. China
| | - Lu-Lu Xue
- Animal Zoology Department, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, P. R. China
| | - Jia Liu
- Animal Zoology Department, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, P. R. China
| | - Mohammed Al-Hawwas
- Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Larisa Bobrovskaya
- Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Dong-Hui Liu
- Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
| | - Li Chen
- Institute of Neurological Disease, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China
| | - Ting-Hua Wang
- Institute of Neurological Disease, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China
- Animal Zoology Department, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, P. R. China
| | - Xin-Fu Zhou
- Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia
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13
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Chock VY, Cho SH, Frymoyer A. Aminophylline for renal protection in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in the era of therapeutic hypothermia. Pediatr Res 2021; 89:974-980. [PMID: 32503030 PMCID: PMC7718287 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-020-0999-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) frequently develop acute kidney injury (AKI). Aminophylline has been shown to reduce severe renal dysfunction in neonates after perinatal asphyxia. However, the effect of aminophylline on renal function in neonates undergoing hypothermia has not been studied. METHODS A single-center, retrospective chart review of neonates cooled for moderate/severe HIE who received aminophylline for AKI was conducted to assess changes in urine output (UOP) and serum creatinine (SCr). Comparisons were also made to control neonates matched for hours of life who were cooled but unexposed to aminophylline. RESULTS Sixteen neonates cooled for HIE received aminophylline starting at 25 ± 14 h of life. Within 12 h of starting aminophylline, UOP increased by 2.6 ± 1.9 mL/kg/h. SCr declined by 0.4 ± 0.2 mg/dL in survivors over the first 4 days. When compared to control neonates, UOP increase was greater in the aminophylline group (p < 0.001). SCr declined in survivors in both groups, although baseline SCr was higher in the aminophylline group. CONCLUSIONS Aminophylline use in neonates with HIE undergoing hypothermia was associated with an increase in UOP and a decline in SCr. A randomized trial will be needed to establish a potential renal protective role of aminophylline. IMPACT The renal protective effect of aminophylline in neonates with HIE has not yet been studied in the context of therapeutic hypothermia. Aminophylline exposure in neonates cooled for HIE was associated with increased UOP and a similar decline in SCr when compared to control infants unexposed to aminophylline. Improved renal function after receiving aminophylline in this observational cohort study suggests the need for future randomized trials to establish the potential benefit of aminophylline in the HIE population undergoing hypothermia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Y Chock
- Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA.
| | - Seo-Ho Cho
- Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Adam Frymoyer
- Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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Frymoyer A, Van Meurs KP, Drover DR, Klawitter J, Christians U, Chock VY. Theophylline dosing and pharmacokinetics for renal protection in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy undergoing therapeutic hypothermia. Pediatr Res 2020; 88:871-877. [PMID: 32919393 PMCID: PMC7704857 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-020-01140-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Theophylline, a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist, improves renal perfusion in the setting of hypoxia-ischemia and may offer therapeutic benefit in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) undergoing hypothermia. We evaluated the pharmacokinetics and dose-exposure relationships of theophylline in this population to guide dosing strategies. METHODS A population pharmacokinetic analysis was performed in 22 neonates with HIE undergoing hypothermia who were part of a prospective study or retrospective chart review. Aminophylline (intravenous salt form of theophylline) was given per institutional standard of care for low urine output and/or rising serum creatinine (5 mg/kg intravenous (i.v.) load then 1.8 mg/kg i.v. q6h). The ability of different dosing regimens to achieve target concentrations (4-10 mg/L) associated with clinical response was examined. RESULTS Birth weight was a significant predictor of theophylline clearance and volume of distribution (p < 0.05). The median half-life was 39.5 h (range 27.2-50.4). An aminophylline loading dose of 7 mg/kg followed by 1.6 mg/kg q12h was predicted to achieve target concentrations in 84% of simulated neonates. CONCLUSIONS In neonates with HIE undergoing hypothermia, theophylline clearance was low with a 50% longer half-life compared to full-term normothermic neonates without HIE. Dosing strategies need to consider the unique pharmacokinetic needs of this population. IMPACT Theophylline is a potential renal-protective therapy in neonates with HIE undergoing therapeutic hypothermia; however, the pharmacokinetics and dose needs in this population are not known. Theophylline clearance was low in neonates with HIE undergoing therapeutic hypothermia with a 50% longer half-life compared to full-term normothermic neonates without HIE. As theophylline is advanced in clinical development, dosing strategies will need to consider the unique pharmacokinetic needs of neonates with HIE undergoing therapeutic hypothermia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Frymoyer
- Department of Pediatrics, Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Krisa P Van Meurs
- Department of Pediatrics, Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David R Drover
- Department Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jelena Klawitter
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Uwe Christians
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Valerie Y Chock
- Department of Pediatrics, Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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15
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Murphy HJ, Thomas B, Van Wyk B, Tierney SB, Selewski DT, Jetton JG. Nephrotoxic medications and acute kidney injury risk factors in the neonatal intensive care unit: clinical challenges for neonatologists and nephrologists. Pediatr Nephrol 2020; 35:2077-2088. [PMID: 31605211 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-019-04350-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neonatal acute kidney injury (AKI) is common. Critically ill neonates are at risk for AKI for many reasons including the severity of their underlying illnesses, prematurity, and nephrotoxic medications. In this educational review, we highlight four clinical scenarios in which both the illness itself and the medications indicated for their treatment are risk factors for AKI: sepsis, perinatal asphyxia, patent ductus arteriosus, and necrotizing enterocolitis. We review the available evidence regarding medications commonly used in the neonatal period with known nephrotoxic potential, including gentamicin, acyclovir, indomethacin, vancomycin, piperacillin-tazobactam, and amphotericin. We aim to illustrate the complexity of decision-making involved for both neonatologists and pediatric nephrologists when managing infants with these conditions and advocate for ongoing multidisciplinary collaboration in the development of better AKI surveillance protocols and AKI mitigation strategies to improve care for these vulnerable patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi J Murphy
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Brady Thomas
- Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Brynna Van Wyk
- Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Division of Nephrology, Dialysis, and Transplantation, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, 2027 BT, Iowa City, IA, 52241, USA
| | - Sarah B Tierney
- Department of Pharmaceutical Care, University of Iowa Stead Family Children's Hospital, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - David T Selewski
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Jennifer G Jetton
- Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Division of Nephrology, Dialysis, and Transplantation, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, 2027 BT, Iowa City, IA, 52241, USA.
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16
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Lutz IC, Allegaert K, de Hoon JN, Marynissen H. Pharmacokinetics during therapeutic hypothermia for neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy: a literature review. BMJ Paediatr Open 2020; 4:e000685. [PMID: 32577535 PMCID: PMC7299043 DOI: 10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy due to perinatal asphyxia, can result in severe neurodevelopmental disability or mortality. Hypothermia is at present the only proven neuroprotective intervention. During hypothermia, the neonate may need a variety of drugs with their specific pharmacokinetic profile. The aim of this paper is to determine the effect that hypothermia for neonates suffering from hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy has on the pharmacokinetics and to what extent dosing regimens need adjustments. METHOD A systematic search was performed on PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library of literature (2000-2020) using a combination of the following search terms: therapeutic hypothermia, neonate, hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy and pharmacokinetics. Titles and abstracts were screened, and inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied. Finally, relevant full texts were read, and secondary inclusion was applied on the identified articles. RESULTS A total of 380 articles were retrieved, and 34 articles included after application of inclusion/exclusion criteria and duplicate removal, two additional papers were included as suggested by the reviewers. Twelve out of 36 studies on 15 compounds demonstrated a significant decrease in clearance, be it that the extent differs between routes of elimination and compounds, most pronounced for renal elimination (phenobarbital no difference, midazolam metabolite -21%, lidocaine -24%; morphine -21% to -47%, gentamicin -25% to -35%, amikacin -40%) during hypothermia. The data as retrieved in literature were subsequent compared with the dosing regimen as stated in the Dutch paediatric formulary. CONCLUSION Depending on the drug-specific disposition characteristics, therapeutic hypothermia in neonates with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy affects pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karel Allegaert
- Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Intensive Care and Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus MC Sophia, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan N de Hoon
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Center for Clinical Pharmacology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Heleen Marynissen
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Center for Clinical Pharmacology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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17
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Smits A, Annaert P, Van Cruchten S, Allegaert K. A Physiology-Based Pharmacokinetic Framework to Support Drug Development and Dose Precision During Therapeutic Hypothermia in Neonates. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:587. [PMID: 32477113 PMCID: PMC7237643 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is standard treatment for neonates (≥36 weeks) with perinatal asphyxia (PA) and hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. TH reduces mortality and neurodevelopmental disability due to reduced metabolic rate and decreased neuronal apoptosis. Since both hypothermia and PA influence physiology, they are expected to alter pharmacokinetics (PK). Tools for personalized dosing in this setting are lacking. A neonatal hypothermia physiology-based PK (PBPK) framework would enable precision dosing in the clinic. In this literature review, the stepwise approach, benefits and challenges to develop such a PBPK framework are covered. It hereby contributes to explore the impact of non-maturational PK covariates. First, the current evidence as well as knowledge gaps on the impact of PA and TH on drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion in neonates is summarized. While reduced renal drug elimination is well-documented in neonates with PA undergoing hypothermia, knowledge of the impact on drug metabolism is limited. Second, a multidisciplinary approach to develop a neonatal hypothermia PBPK framework is presented. Insights on the effect of hypothermia on hepatic drug elimination can partly be generated from in vitro (human/animal) profiling of hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes and transporters. Also, endogenous biomarkers may be evaluated as surrogate for metabolic activity. To distinguish the impact of PA versus hypothermia on drug metabolism, in vivo neonatal animal data are needed. The conventional pig is a well-established model for PA and the neonatal Göttingen minipig should be further explored for PA under hypothermia conditions, as it is the most commonly used pig strain in nonclinical drug development. Finally, a strategy is proposed for establishing and fine-tuning compound-specific PBPK models for this application. Besides improvement of clinical exposure predictions of drugs used during hypothermia, the developed PBPK models can be applied in drug development. Add-on pharmacotherapies to further improve outcome in neonates undergoing hypothermia are under investigation, all in need for dosing guidance. Furthermore, the hypothermia PBPK framework can be used to develop temperature-driven PBPK models for other populations or indications. The applicability of the proposed workflow and the challenges in the development of the PBPK framework are illustrated for midazolam as model drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Smits
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pieter Annaert
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Steven Van Cruchten
- Applied Veterinary Morphology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Karel Allegaert
- Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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18
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Dexmedetomidine Pharmacokinetics in Neonates with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy Receiving Hypothermia. Anesthesiol Res Pract 2020; 2020:2582965. [PMID: 32158472 PMCID: PMC7060842 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2582965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Dexmedetomidine is a promising sedative and analgesic for newborns with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) undergoing therapeutic hypothermia (TH). Pharmacokinetics and safety of dexmedetomidine were evaluated in a phase I, single-center, open-label study to inform future trial strategies. We recruited 7 neonates ≥36 weeks' gestational age diagnosed with moderate-to-severe HIE, who received a continuous dexmedetomidine infusion during TH and the 6 h rewarming period. Time course of plasma dexmedetomidine concentration was characterized by serial blood sampling during and after the 64.8 ± 6.9 hours of infusion. Noncompartmental analysis yielded descriptive pharmacokinetic estimates: plasma clearance of 0.760 ± 0.155 L/h/kg, steady-state distribution volume of 5.22 ± 2.62 L/kg, and mean residence time of 6.84 ± 3.20 h. Naive pooled and population analyses according to a one-compartment model provided similar estimates of clearance and distribution volume. Overall, clearance was either comparable or lower, distribution volume was larger, and mean residence time or elimination half-life was longer in cooled newborns with HIE compared to corresponding estimates previously reported for uncooled (normothermic) newborns without HIE at comparable gestational and postmenstrual ages. As a result, plasma concentrations in cooled newborns with HIE rose more slowly in the initial hours of infusion compared to predicted concentration-time profiles based on reported pharmacokinetic parameters in normothermic newborns without HIE, while similar steady-state levels were achieved. No acute adverse events were associated with dexmedetomidine treatment. While dexmedetomidine appeared safe for neonates with HIE during TH at infusion doses up to 0.4 μg/kg/h, a loading dose strategy may be needed to overcome the initial lag in rise of plasma dexmedetomidine concentration.
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Abstract
Antimicrobial medications are the most commonly used medications in the neonatal intensive care unit. Antibiotics are used for infection prophylaxis, empiric treatment, and definitive treatment of confirmed infection. The choice of medication should be informed by the epidemiology and microbiology of infection in specific clinical scenarios and by the clinical condition of the infant. Understanding evolving pathogen susceptibility to antimicrobials and key pharmacotherapy determinants in neonates can inform optimal antibiotic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sagori Mukhopadhyay
- Section on Newborn Medicine, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; CHOP Newborn Care, Pennsylvania Hospital, 800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Kelly C Wade
- Section on Newborn Medicine, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; CHOP Newborn Care, Pennsylvania Hospital, 800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Karen M Puopolo
- Section on Newborn Medicine, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; CHOP Newborn Care, Pennsylvania Hospital, 800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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20
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Crcek M, Zdovc J, Kerec Kos M. A review of population pharmacokinetic models of gentamicin in paediatric patients. J Clin Pharm Ther 2019; 44:659-674. [PMID: 31102287 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVES Gentamicin is often used for the treatment of Gram-negative infections. Due to pharmacokinetic variability in paediatric patients, appropriate dosing of gentamicin in the paediatric population is challenging. This article reviews published population pharmacokinetic models of gentamicin in paediatric patients, identifies covariates that significantly influence gentamicin pharmacokinetics, and determines whether there is a consensus on proposed dosing for intravenous gentamicin in this population. METHODS The PubMed database was searched for articles published until the end of 2017. If the articles described population pharmacokinetic models of gentamicin in the paediatric population (after intravenous administration of gentamicin), the following data were extracted: type of study, year of publication, population characteristics and number of patients, gentamicin dosing, total number of gentamicin (serum and/or plasma) concentrations, type of population modelling approach, developed model with pharmacokinetic parameters and covariates included. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In most of the studies, one- or two-compartment modelling was applied. The mean estimated gentamicin clearance for newborns, infants and the complete paediatric population was 0.048, 0.13 and 0.067 L/h/kg, respectively, and the mean predicted volume of distribution was 0.475, 0.35 and 0.33 L/kg, respectively. The values reflect differences in body composition and kidney maturation within the different paediatric populations. Gentamicin pharmacokinetics were most influenced by age, body size and renal function. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Based on our review, the authors agree on a prolonged dosing interval for preterm and term newborns (up to 48 hours). However, there was no agreement on proposed dosing with respect to gestational age. In general, the proposed daily doses were lower compared to those initially applied for preterm newborns and comparable to those for term newborns. For infants and children, the dosing interval remained unchanged (24 hours), but the proposed daily doses were higher than actually applied. When differences in the paediatric population are considered and an appropriate population PK model with applicable covariates is applied, dosing can be individualized. In the future, studies of gentamicin pharmacokinetics in paediatric patients should focus on currently underestimated covariates, such as fat-free mass, concomitantly administered drugs, body temperature and critical illness because these can change gentamicin PK considerably. Consequently, different dosing is required and TDM becomes even more important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateja Crcek
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jurij Zdovc
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mojca Kerec Kos
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Favié LMA, Groenendaal F, van den Broek MPH, Rademaker CMA, de Haan TR, van Straaten HLM, Dijk PH, van Heijst A, Dudink J, Dijkman KP, Rijken M, Zonnenberg IA, Cools F, Zecic A, van der Lee JH, Nuytemans DHGM, van Bel F, Egberts TCG, Huitema ADR. Pharmacokinetics of morphine in encephalopathic neonates treated with therapeutic hypothermia. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211910. [PMID: 30763356 PMCID: PMC6375702 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Morphine is a commonly used drug in encephalopathic neonates treated with therapeutic hypothermia after perinatal asphyxia. Pharmacokinetics and optimal dosing of morphine in this population are largely unknown. The objective of this study was to describe pharmacokinetics of morphine and its metabolites morphine-3-glucuronide and morphine-6-glucuronide in encephalopathic neonates treated with therapeutic hypothermia and to develop pharmacokinetics based dosing guidelines for this population. STUDY DESIGN Term and near-term encephalopathic neonates treated with therapeutic hypothermia and receiving morphine were included in two multicenter cohort studies between 2008-2010 (SHIVER) and 2010-2014 (PharmaCool). Data were collected during hypothermia and rewarming, including blood samples for quantification of morphine and its metabolites. Parental informed consent was obtained for all participants. RESULTS 244 patients (GA mean (sd) 39.8 (1.6) weeks, BW mean (sd) 3,428 (613) g, male 61.5%) were included. Morphine clearance was reduced under hypothermia (33.5°C) by 6.89%/°C (95% CI 5.37%/°C- 8.41%/°C, p<0.001) and metabolite clearance by 4.91%/°C (95% CI 3.53%/°C- 6.22%/°C, p<0.001) compared to normothermia (36.5°C). Simulations showed that a loading dose of 50 μg/kg followed by continuous infusion of 5 μg/kg/h resulted in morphine plasma concentrations in the desired range (between 10 and 40 μg/L) during hypothermia. CONCLUSIONS Clearance of morphine and its metabolites in neonates is affected by therapeutic hypothermia. The regimen suggested by the simulations will be sufficient in the majority of patients. However, due to the large interpatient variability a higher dose might be necessary in individual patients to achieve the desired effect. TRIAL REGISTRATION www.trialregister.nl NTR2529.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent M. A. Favié
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Floris Groenendaal
- Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marcel P. H. van den Broek
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Carin M. A. Rademaker
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Timo R. de Haan
- Department of Neonatology, Emma Children’s Hospital, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Peter H. Dijk
- Department of Neonatology, Groningen University Medical Centre, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Arno van Heijst
- Department of Neonatology, Radboud university medical center-Amalia Children’s Hospital, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Dudink
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus Medical Centre-Sophia Children’s Hospital, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Koen P. Dijkman
- Department of Neonatology, Máxima Medical Center Veldhoven, Veldhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Monique Rijken
- Department of Neonatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Inge A. Zonnenberg
- Department of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Filip Cools
- Department of Neonatology, UZ Brussel—Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Alexandra Zecic
- Department of Neonatology, University Hospital Gent, Gent, Belgium
| | - Johanna H. van der Lee
- Paediatric Clinical Research Office, Emma Children’s Hospital, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Frank van Bel
- Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Toine C. G. Egberts
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Alwin D. R. Huitema
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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22
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Cies JJ, Habib T, Bains V, Young M, Menkiti OR. Population Pharmacokinetics of Gentamicin in Neonates with Hypoxemic-Ischemic Encephalopathy Receiving Controlled Hypothermia. Pharmacotherapy 2018; 38:1120-1129. [PMID: 30300445 DOI: 10.1002/phar.2186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Identify population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic target attainment of gentamicin in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) undergoing controlled hypothermia (CH). DESIGN Prospective open-label pharmacokinetic study. Gentamicin concentrations were modeled and dosing regimens simulated for a 5000-patient neonatal population with HIE receiving CH using PMetrics, a nonparametric, pharmacometric modeling, and simulation package for R. SETTING A 189-bed children's tertiary care teaching hospital. RESULTS Twelve patients, 5 (42%) females and 7 (58%) males, met inclusion criteria with a median gestation age of 39.9 weeks (interquartile range [IQR] 38.5-40.2 wks) and a median birthweight (BW) of 3.3 kg (IQR 3.1-3.7 kg). Gentamicin concentrations were best described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination with BW as a covariate on volume of distribution (Vd). The mean total body population clearance (CL) was 2.2 ± 0.7 ml/minute/kg, and the volume of the central compartment was 0.44 ± 0.06 L/kg. The R2 , bias, and precision for the observed versus population predicted model were 0.917, 1.15, and 10.9 μg/ml; the R2 , bias, and precision for the observed versus individual predicted model were 0.982, -0.132, and 0.932 μg/ml, respectively. The calculated mean population estimate for the total Vd was 0.96 ± 0.4 L/kg. The dosing regimen that most consistently produced a maximum concentration (Cmax ) in the range of 10-12 mg/L with a minimum concentration (Cmin ) level less than 2 mg/L was 5 mg/kg/dose given every 36 hours. CONCLUSION These data suggest the population pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in neonates with HIE receiving CH have an increase in gentamicin CL and are different from previous reports in neonates with HIE not receiving CH and/or neonates without HIE. This analysis suggests a dosing regimen of 5 mg/kg/dose every 36 hours results in a gentamicin Cmax within the range of 10-12 mg/L with a Cmin lower than 2 mg/L, which is appropriate for treating susceptible gram-negative organisms with minimum inhibitory concentrations of 1 mg/L or lower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Cies
- The Center for Pediatric Pharmacotherapy, LLC, Pottstown, Pennsylvania.,St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Thomas Habib
- St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Vidhy Bains
- St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Megan Young
- St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Ogechukwu R Menkiti
- St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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23
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Choi DW, Park JH, Lee SY, An SH. Effect of hypothermia treatment on gentamicin pharmacokinetics in neonates with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Pharm Ther 2018; 43:484-492. [PMID: 29781085 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE Hypothermia is the current standard therapy for asphyxiated neonates with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE). Gentamicin is used for the empirical treatment of early-onset neonatal sepsis. We investigated the influence of hypothermia treatment on gentamicin pharmacokinetics and suggested the appropriate dosing recommendations for gentamicin in neonates with HIE receiving hypothermia treatment. METHODS We searched studies published until February 2017 in MEDLINE using PubMed, EMBASE and the Cochrane Library. Three independent reviewers screened the literature and extracted data from each study. All of the studies that reported the blood concentrations or pharmacokinetic parameters of gentamicin in hypothermic neonates with HIE were included in this review. Articles were excluded if they were not original research. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A total of 8 observational studies met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analyses were performed in which the mean difference of gentamicin for the trough concentration and clearance between hypothermic and normothermic neonates were 0.81 mg/L (95% confidence interval [-0.07, 1.69]) and -0.21 mL/kg/min (95% confidence interval [-0.31, -0.12]), respectively. The factors affecting gentamicin clearance in hypothermic neonates with HIE were gestational age, birthweight and serum creatinine. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Gentamicin clearance is decreased in neonates with HIE receiving hypothermia treatment compared to those not receiving hypothermia treatment. Modified gentamicin dosing regimens are required to avoid potential toxicity related to higher concentrations during hypothermia treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
| | - J H Park
- College of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
| | - S Y Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
| | - S H An
- College of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
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24
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van Donge T, Pfister M, Bielicki J, Csajka C, Rodieux F, van den Anker J, Fuchs A. Quantitative Analysis of Gentamicin Exposure in Neonates and Infants Calls into Question Its Current Dosing Recommendations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2018; 62:e02004-17. [PMID: 29358294 PMCID: PMC5913996 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02004-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Optimal dosing of gentamicin in neonates is still a matter of debate despite its common use. We identified gentamicin dosing regimens from eight international guidelines and seven Swiss neonatal intensive care units. The dose per administration, the dosing interval, the total daily dose, and the demographic characteristics between guidelines were compared. There was considerable variability with respect to dose (4 to 6 mg/kg), dosing interval (24 h to 48 h), total daily dose (2.5 to 6 mg/kg/day), and patient demographic characteristics that were used to calculate individualized dosing regimens. A model-based simulation study in 1071 neonates was performed to determine the achievement of efficacious peak gentamicin concentrations according to predefined MICs (Cmax/MIC ≥ 10) and safe trough concentrations (Cmin ≤ 2 mg/liter) with recommended dosing regimens. MIC targets of 0.5 and 1 mg/liter were used. Dosing optimization was performed giving priority to the first day of treatment and with the goal of simplifying dosing. Current gentamicin neonatal guidelines allow to achieve effective peak concentrations for MICs ≤ 0.5 mg/liter but not higher. Model-based simulations indicate that to attain peak gentamicin concentrations of ≥10 mg/liter, a dose of 7.5 mg/kg should be administered using an extended dosing interval regimen. Trough concentrations of ≤2 mg/liter can be maintained with a dosing interval of 36 to 48 h in neonates according to gestational and postnatal age. For treatment beyond 3 days, therapeutic drug monitoring is advised to maintain adequate serum concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara van Donge
- Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics Research, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marc Pfister
- Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics Research, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
- Quantitative Solutions, a Certara Company, London, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Bielicki
- Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics Research, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases Research Group, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Chantal Csajka
- Service of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, University of Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Frederique Rodieux
- Service of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - John van den Anker
- Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics Research, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
- Intensive Care and Department of Surgery, Erasmus Medical Center-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Aline Fuchs
- Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics Research, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
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25
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Lima-Rogel V, López-López EJ, Medellín-Garibay SE, Gómez-Ruiz LM, Romero-Méndez C, Milán-Segovia RC, Romano-Moreno S. Population pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in neonates with seizures. J Clin Pharm Ther 2017; 43:422-429. [PMID: 29265480 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE This study developed a population pharmacokinetic (PK) model of levetiracetam (LEV) for treating neonatal seizures (NS) and determined the influence of clinically relevant covariates to explain the interindividual variability and residual error. METHODS Twenty newborns admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit at the Hospital Central "Dr. Ignacio Morones Prieto" were included. LEV doses were administered by intermittent infusion. Blood samples were drawn 3 times post-infusion. Levetiracetam was quantified by a chromatographic technique. NONMEM software was used to determine the population PK model of LEV in neonates and the influence of clinical covariates on drug disposition. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The LEV PK in neonates is described by a one-compartment open model with first-order elimination. The influence of creatinine clearance (CRCL) and body weight (BW) on clearance (CL[L/h] = 0.47*CRCL), as well as the volume of the distribution (Vd[L] = 0.65*BW) of LEV, were confirmed, considering interindividual variabilities of 36% and 22%, respectively, and a residual error of 13%. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Based on the PK of LEV in neonates and the influence of the final PK model, a priori dosing guidelines are proposed considering CRCL, BW and LEV plasma concentrations between 6 and 20 mg/L for NS treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Lima-Rogel
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Hospital Central "Dr. Ignacio Morones Prieto", San Luis Potosí, México
| | - E J López-López
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
| | - S E Medellín-Garibay
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
| | - L M Gómez-Ruiz
- Neonatology Department, Nuevo Hospital Civil "Dr. Juan I. Menchaca", Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - C Romero-Méndez
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
| | - R C Milán-Segovia
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
| | - S Romano-Moreno
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
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26
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Llanos-Paez CC, Hennig S, Staatz CE. Population pharmacokinetic modelling, Monte Carlo simulation and semi-mechanistic pharmacodynamic modelling as tools to personalize gentamicin therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2017; 72:639-667. [PMID: 28062683 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkw461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Population pharmacokinetic modelling, Monte Carlo simulation and semi-mechanistic pharmacodynamic modelling are all tools that can be applied to personalize gentamicin therapy. This review summarizes and evaluates literature knowledge on the population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of gentamicin and identifies areas where further research is required to successfully individualize gentamicin therapy using modelling and simulation techniques. Thirty-five studies have developed a population pharmacokinetic model of gentamicin and 15 studies have made dosing recommendations based on Monte Carlo simulation. Variability in gentamicin clearance was most commonly related to renal function in adults and body weight and age in paediatrics. Nine studies have related aminoglycoside exposure indices to clinical outcomes. Most commonly, efficacy has been linked to a Cmax/MIC ≥7-10 and a AUC24/MIC ≥70-100. No study to date has shown a relationship between predicted achievement of exposure targets and actual clinical success. Five studies have developed a semi-mechanistic pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model to predict bacteria killing and regrowth following gentamicin exposure and one study has developed a deterministic model of aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity. More complex semi-mechanistic models are required that consider the immune response, use of multiple antibiotics, the severity of illness, and both efficacy and toxicity. As our understanding grows, dosing of gentamicin based on sound pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles should be applied more commonly in clinical practice.
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27
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Rivera-Chaparro ND, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Greenberg RG. Dosing antibiotics in neonates: review of the pharmacokinetic data. Future Microbiol 2017; 12:1001-1016. [PMID: 28758800 PMCID: PMC5627030 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2017-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotics are often used in neonates despite the absence of relevant dosing information in drug labels. For neonatal dosing, clinicians must extrapolate data from studies for adults and older children, who have strikingly different physiologies. As a result, dosing extrapolation can lead to increased toxicity or efficacy failures in neonates. Driven by these differences and recent legislation mandating the study of drugs in children and neonates, an increasing number of pharmacokinetic studies of antibiotics are being performed in neonates. These studies have led to new dosing recommendations with particular consideration for neonate body size and maturation. Herein, we highlight the available pharmacokinetic data for commonly used systemic antibiotics in neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazario D Rivera-Chaparro
- Duke Clinical Research Institute, 2400 Pratt Street, Durham, NC 27705, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Michael Cohen-Wolkowiez
- Duke Clinical Research Institute, 2400 Pratt Street, Durham, NC 27705, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Rachel G Greenberg
- Duke Clinical Research Institute, 2400 Pratt Street, Durham, NC 27705, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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28
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A Population Pharmacokinetic Analysis to Study the Effect of Therapeutic Hypothermia on Vancomycin Disposition in Children Resuscitated From Cardiac Arrest. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2017; 18:e290-e297. [PMID: 28481829 PMCID: PMC5503753 DOI: 10.1097/pcc.0000000000001198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Limited data exist on the effects of therapeutic hypothermia on renal function and pharmacokinetics in pediatric patients after cardiac arrest. The objective was to describe the differences in vancomycin disposition in pediatric patients following cardiac arrest treated with either therapeutic hypothermia or normothermia using population pharmacokinetic modeling. DESIGN Single-center, retrospective cohort study. SETTING A tertiary care hospital pediatric and cardiac ICU. PATIENTS Fifty-two pediatric patients (30 d to 17 yr old) who experienced a cardiac arrest, received vancomycin, and were treated with therapeutic hypothermia (32-34°C) or normothermia (36.3-37.6°C) between January 1, 2010, and September 30, 2014, were reviewed. INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS A two-compartment model with linear elimination, weight effects on clearance, intercompartmental clearance (Q), central volume of distribution (V1), and peripheral volume of distribution (V2) adequately described the data despite high variability due to the small sample size. The typical value of clearance in this study was 4.48 L/hr (0.19 L/hr/kg) for a normothermic patient weighing 70 kg and a glomerular filtration rate of 90 mL/min/1.73 m. Patients treated with normothermia but with reduced or poor renal function (≤ 90 mL/min/1.73 m) had up to an 80% reduction in vancomycin clearance compared to those with normal renal function (90-140 mL/min/1.73 m). Patients with normal renal function but treated with therapeutic hypothermia versus normothermia experienced up to 25% reduction in vancomycin clearance. Patients treated with therapeutic hypothermia and with poor renal function experienced up to an 84% reduction in vancomycin clearance. CONCLUSIONS Patients receiving hypothermia and/or with decreased renal function had lower vancomycin clearances based on a retrospectively fitted two-compartment model in children who experience cardiac arrest.
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29
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Frymoyer A, Juul SE, Massaro AN, Bammler TK, Wu YW. High-dose erythropoietin population pharmacokinetics in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy receiving hypothermia. Pediatr Res 2017; 81:865-872. [PMID: 28099423 PMCID: PMC5476365 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2017.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND High-dose erythropoietin (Epo) is a promising neuroprotective treatment in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) receiving hypothermia. We evaluated the pharmacokinetics and dose-exposure relationships of high-dose Epo in this population to inform future dosing strategies. METHODS We performed a population pharmacokinetic analysis of 47 neonates with HIE treated with hypothermia who received up to six doses of Epo in two previous clinical trials. We compared the ability of different dosing regimens to achieve the target neuroprotective Epo exposure levels determined from animal models of hypoxic-ischemia (i.e., area under the curve during the first 48 h of treatment (AUC48 h) 140,000 mU*h/ml). RESULTS Birth weight scaled via allometry was a significant predictor of Epo clearance and volume of distribution (P < 0.001). After accounting for birth weight, variation in Epo pharmacokinetics between neonates was low (CV% 20%). All 23 neonates who received 1,000 U/kg every 24 h for the first 2 d of therapy achieved the target AUC48 h 140,000 mU*h/ml. No neonate who received a lower dosing regimen achieved this target. CONCLUSION In neonates with HIE receiving hypothermia, Epo 1,000 U/kg every 24 h for the first 2 d of therapy resulted in consistent achievement of target exposures associated with neuroprotection in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Frymoyer
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University,Correspondence: Adam Frymoyer, MD, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, 750 Welch Rd, Suite #315, Palo Alto, CA 94304, Phone: +1 650 723-5711, Fax: +1 650 725-8351,
| | - Sandra E. Juul
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - An N. Massaro
- Department of Neonatology, Children’s National Health Systems, Washington DC
| | - Theo K Bammler
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Yvonne W. Wu
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California,Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, California
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30
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Anderson KB, Poloyac SM, Kochanek PM, Empey PE. Effect of Hypothermia and Targeted Temperature Management on Drug Disposition and Response Following Cardiac Arrest: A Comprehensive Review of Preclinical and Clinical Investigations. Ther Hypothermia Temp Manag 2016; 6:169-179. [PMID: 27622966 DOI: 10.1089/ther.2016.0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted temperature management (TTM) has been shown to reduce mortality and improve neurological outcomes in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (CA) patients and in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). TTM has also been associated with adverse drug events in the critically ill patient due to its effect on drug pharmacokinetics (PKs) and pharmacodynamics (PDs). We aim to evaluate the current literature on the effect of TTM on drug PKs and PDs following CA. MEDLINE/PubMed databases were searched for publications, which include the MeSH terms hypothermia, drug metabolism, drug transport, P450, critical care, cardiac arrest, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics between July 2006 and October 2015. Twenty-three studies were included in this review. The studies demonstrate that hypothermia impacts PK parameters and increases concentrations of cytochrome-P450-metabolized drugs in the cooling and rewarming phase. Furthermore, the current data demonstrate a combined effect of CA and hypothermia on drug PK. Importantly, these effects can last greater than 4-5 days post-treatment. Limited evidence suggests hypothermia-mediated changes in the Phase II metabolism and the Phase III transport of drugs. Hypothermia also has been shown to potentially decrease the effect of specific drugs at the receptor level. Therapeutic hypothermia, as commonly deployed/applied during TTM, alters PK, and elevates concentrations of several commonly used medications. Hypothermia-mediated effects are an important factor when dosing and monitoring patients undergoing TTM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacey B Anderson
- 1 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Samuel M Poloyac
- 1 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Patrick M Kochanek
- 2 Department of Critical Care Medicine, Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Philip E Empey
- 3 Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, Center for Clinical Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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31
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Frymoyer A, Bonifacio SL, Drover DR, Su F, Wustoff CJ, Van Meurs KP. Decreased Morphine Clearance in Neonates With Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy Receiving Hypothermia. J Clin Pharmacol 2016; 57:64-76. [PMID: 27225747 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Morphine is commonly used in neonates with hypothermic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) during therapeutic hypothermia to provide comfort and analgesia. However, pharmacokinetic data to support morphine dosing in this vulnerable population are lacking. A prospective, 2-center clinical pharmacokinetic study of morphine was conducted in 20 neonates (birthweight, 1.82-5.3 kg) with HIE receiving hypothermia. Morphine dosing was per standard of care at each center. Morphine and glucuronide metabolites (morphine-3-glucuronide and morphine-6-gluronide) were measured via a validated dried blood spot liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay. From the available concentration data (n = 106 for morphine; n = 106 for each metabolite), a population pharmacokinetic model was developed using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling. The clearance of morphine and glucuronide metabolites was best predicted by birthweight allometrically scaled using an exponent of 1.23. In addition, the clearance of each glucuronide metabolite was influenced by serum creatinine. No other significant predictors of clearance or volume of distribution were found. For a 3.5-kg neonate, morphine clearance was 0.77 L/h (CV, 48%), and the steady-state volume of distribution was 8.0 L (CV, 49%). Compared with previous studies in full-term newborns without HIE, morphine clearance was markedly lower. Dosing strategies customized for this vulnerable population will be needed. Applying the final population pharmacokinetic model, repeated Monte Carlo simulations (n = 1000 per simulation) were performed to evaluate various morphine dosing strategies that optimized achievement of morphine concentrations between 10 and 40 ng/mL. An optimized morphine loading dose of 50 μg/kg followed by a continuous infusion of 5 μg/kg/h was predicted across birthweights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Frymoyer
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | | | - David R Drover
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Felice Su
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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32
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Bijleveld YA, de Haan TR, van der Lee HJH, Groenendaal F, Dijk PH, van Heijst A, de Jonge RCJ, Dijkman KP, van Straaten HLM, Rijken M, Zonnenberg IA, Cools F, Zecic A, Nuytemans DHGM, van Kaam AH, Mathot RAA. Altered gentamicin pharmacokinetics in term neonates undergoing controlled hypothermia. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2016; 81:1067-77. [PMID: 26763684 PMCID: PMC4876193 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.12883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM(S) Little is known about the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of gentamicin in newborns undergoing controlled hypothermia after suffering from hypoxic−ischaemic encephalopathy due to perinatal asphyxia. This study prospectively evaluates and describes the population PK of gentamicin in these patients METHODS Demographic, clinical and laboratory data of patients included in a multicentre prospective observational cohort study (the ‘PharmaCool Study’) were collected. A non-linear mixed-effects regression analysis (nonmem®) was performed to describe the population PK of gentamicin. The most optimal dosing regimen was evaluated based on simulations of the final model. RESULTS A total of 47 patients receiving gentamicin were included in the analysis. The PK were best described by an allometric two compartment model with gestational age (GA) as a covariate on clearance (CL). During hypothermia the CL of a typical patient (3 kg, GA 40 weeks, 2 days post-natal age (PNA)) was 0.06 l kg−1 h−1 (inter-individual variability (IIV) 26.6%) and volume of distribution of the central compartment (Vc) was 0.46 l kg−1 (IIV 40.8%). CL was constant during hypothermia and rewarming, but increased by 29% after reaching normothermia (>96 h PNA). CONCLUSIONS This study describes the PK of gentamicin in neonates undergoing controlled hypothermia. The 29% higher CL in the normothermic phase compared with the preceding phases suggests a delay in normalization of CL after rewarming has occurred. Based on simulations we recommend an empiric dose of 5 mg kg−1 every 36 h or every 24 h for patients with GA 36–40 weeks and GA 42 weeks, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Timo R de Haan
- Department of Neonatology, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam
| | - Hanneke J H van der Lee
- Pediatric Clinical Research Office, Division Woman-Child, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam
| | - Floris Groenendaal
- Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht
| | - Peter H Dijk
- Department of Neonatology, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen
| | - Arno van Heijst
- Department of Neonatology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen
| | - Rogier C J de Jonge
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam
| | - Koen P Dijkman
- Department of Neonatology, Máxima Medical Center Veldhoven, Veldhoven
| | | | - Monique Rijken
- Department of Neonatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden
| | - Inge A Zonnenberg
- Department of Neonatology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Filip Cools
- Department of Neonatology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels
| | - Alexandra Zecic
- Department of Neonatology, Academic Medical Center, Gent, Belgium
| | | | - Anton H van Kaam
- Department of Neonatology, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam
| | - Ron A A Mathot
- Department of Pharmacy, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam
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33
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Wilbaux M, Fuchs A, Samardzic J, Rodieux F, Csajka C, Allegaert K, van den Anker JN, Pfister M. Pharmacometric Approaches to Personalize Use of Primarily Renally Eliminated Antibiotics in Preterm and Term Neonates. J Clin Pharmacol 2016; 56:909-35. [PMID: 26766774 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Sepsis remains a major cause of mortality and morbidity in neonates, and, as a consequence, antibiotics are the most frequently prescribed drugs in this vulnerable patient population. Growth and dynamic maturation processes during the first weeks of life result in large inter- and intrasubject variability in the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of antibiotics. In this review we (1) summarize the available population PK data and models for primarily renally eliminated antibiotics, (2) discuss quantitative approaches to account for effects of growth and maturation processes on drug exposure and response, (3) evaluate current dose recommendations, and (4) identify opportunities to further optimize and personalize dosing strategies of these antibiotics in preterm and term neonates. Although population PK models have been developed for several of these drugs, exposure-response relationships of primarily renally eliminated antibiotics in these fragile infants are not well understood, monitoring strategies remain inconsistent, and consensus on optimal, personalized dosing of these drugs in these patients is absent. Tailored PK/PD studies and models are useful to better understand relationships between drug exposures and microbiological or clinical outcomes. Pharmacometric modeling and simulation approaches facilitate quantitative evaluation and optimization of treatment strategies. National and international collaborations and platforms are essential to standardize and harmonize not only studies and models but also monitoring and dosing strategies. Simple bedside decision tools assist clinical pharmacologists and neonatologists in their efforts to fine-tune and personalize the use of primarily renally eliminated antibiotics in term and preterm neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Wilbaux
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Aline Fuchs
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Janko Samardzic
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Frédérique Rodieux
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Chantal Csajka
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Service of Biomedicine, Department of Laboratory, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, University of Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Karel Allegaert
- Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Belgium.,Intensive Care and Department of Surgery, Erasmus Medical Center-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes N van den Anker
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.,Intensive Care and Department of Surgery, Erasmus Medical Center-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Marc Pfister
- Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.,Quantitative Solutions LP, Menlo Park, CA, USA
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Bhongsatiern J, Stockmann C, Yu T, Constance JE, Moorthy G, Spigarelli MG, Desai PB, Sherwin CMT. Renal Function Descriptors in Neonates: Which Creatinine-Based Formula Best Describes Vancomycin Clearance? J Clin Pharmacol 2015; 56:528-40. [PMID: 26412385 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Growth and maturational changes have been identified as significant covariates in describing variability in clearance of renally excreted drugs such as vancomycin. Because of immaturity of clearance mechanisms, quantification of renal function in neonates is of importance. Several serum creatinine (SCr)-based renal function descriptors have been developed in adults and children, but none are selectively derived for neonates. This review summarizes development of the neonatal kidney and discusses assessment of the renal function regarding estimation of glomerular filtration rate using renal function descriptors. Furthermore, identification of the renal function descriptors that best describe the variability of vancomycin clearance was performed in a sample study of a septic neonatal cohort. Population pharmacokinetic models were developed applying a combination of age-weight, renal function descriptors, or SCr alone. In addition to age and weight, SCr or renal function descriptors significantly reduced variability of vancomycin clearance. The population pharmacokinetic models with Léger and modified Schwartz formulas were selected as the optimal final models, although the other renal function descriptors and SCr provided reasonably good fit to the data, suggesting further evaluation of the final models using external data sets and cross validation. The present study supports incorporation of renal function descriptors in the estimation of vancomycin clearance in neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiraganya Bhongsatiern
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Chris Stockmann
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Tian Yu
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Jonathan E Constance
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Ganesh Moorthy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Michael G Spigarelli
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Pankaj B Desai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Catherine M T Sherwin
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Clinical Trials Office, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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35
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Activity of antimicrobial drugs against bacterial pathogens under mild hypothermic conditions. Am J Emerg Med 2015; 33:1445-8. [PMID: 26231525 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Revised: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKROUND Infections are a common problem in cardiac arrest survivors. Antimicrobial drugs are often administered in routine care during treatment of patients with mild therapeutic hypothermia (MTH). Because there is to date no evidence for the pharmacodynamics of antimicrobial drugs under MTH conditions, we investigated the in vitro activity of common antimicrobials against clinically relevant bacterial pathogens. MATERIAL AND METHODS Activities of antimicrobial drugs against clinically relevant bacterial pathogens were assessed in vitro by disk diffusion and broth microdilution assays at normothermic (37°C) and hypothermic (32°C) conditions. RESULTS Seventy-three bacterial isolates were tested in disk diffusion and 15 in broth microdilution assays. Mean differences in zone diameters and minimal inhibitory concentration ratios were 0.6 mm (95% confidence interval, 0.3-0.9 mm) and 0.98 (95% confidence interval, 0.95-1.02), respectively, meeting predefined criteria for equivalence of in vitro antimicrobial activity. CONCLUSIONS The presented data provide reassuring evidence that the intrinsic activity of antimicrobials seems to be unaltered in MTH. However, further studies evaluating the pharmacokinetics including target site concentrations of the respective drugs and in vivo pharmacodynamics are necessary to complement our understanding of the appropriate use of antimicrobials in MTH.
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Pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in newborns with moderate-to-severe hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy undergoing therapeutic hypothermia. Indian J Pediatr 2015; 82:119-25. [PMID: 25070069 DOI: 10.1007/s12098-014-1527-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate gentamicin pharmacokinetics in neonates with moderate-to-severe hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) who underwent therapeutic hypothermia (TH). METHODS Data were collected retrospectively from infants admitted between January 2007 and February 2011. Gentamicin was given at 2.5 mg/kg/dose q12h intravenously. Infants not eligible for TH underwent therapeutic normothermia (TN). After reviewing the data which showed >85 % of infants undergoing TH had gentamicin trough concentration >2 µg/ml at steady state, the gentamicin level monitoring protocol was modified since March 2011. RESULTS In the initial retrospective study, 15 TN infants were compared with 19 TH infants. There was significant difference in median gentamicin half-life (7.01 vs. 9.57 h). A higher proportion of infants in the TH group required dosage adjustment (8/15 vs. 17/19). After March 2011, gentamicin level taken 12-h post 1st dose was measured routinely and 18/22 infants had trough gentamicin levels >2 µg/ml. Their dosing intervals were extended to Q18h or beyond. CONCLUSIONS Infants with moderate-to-severe HIE who undergo TH may exhibit changes in the pharmacokinetic properties of gentamicin compared to infants who undergo TN. By measuring gentamicin level at 12-h after the first dose of 2.5 mg/kg/dose, appropriate dosing interval can be determined and the duration of exposure to toxic gentamicin level can be reduced.
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Sampson MR, Frymoyer A, Rattray B, Cotten CM, Smith B, Capparelli E, Bonifacio SL, Cohen-Wolkowiez M. Predictive performance of a gentamicin population pharmacokinetic model in neonates receiving full-body hypothermia. Ther Drug Monit 2014; 36:584-9. [PMID: 25225917 PMCID: PMC4166612 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Population pharmacokinetic (popPK) models derived from small pharmacokinetics (PK) studies in neonates are often underpowered to detect clinically important characteristics that drive dosing. External validation of such models is crucial. In this study, the predictive performance of a gentamicin popPK model in neonates receiving hypothermia was evaluated. METHODS A previously published gentamicin popPK model was developed in neonates with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy undergoing hypothermia using a retrospective single-institution (University of California-San Francisco) data set. The predictive performance of this model was evaluated in an external retrospective data set from the University of California-San Francisco (validation A) and another from Duke University (validation B). Both institutions used the same hypothermia protocol and collected similar clinical and PK data. Gentamicin dosing and samples were collected per routine care. Predictive performance was evaluated by quantifying the accuracy and precision of model predictions and using simulation-based diagnostics to detect bias in predictions. RESULTS Forty-one neonates (n = 18 validation A; n = 23 validation B) with median (range) gestational age of 40 weeks (33-42) and birth weight of 3.3 kg (1.9-4.6) and 76 samples (55% troughs, 33% and 28% drawn at 24 and 36 hours after dose, respectively) were analyzed. The model adequately predicted gentamicin concentrations from the same institution (validation A; median average fold error = 1.1 and numerical prediction distribution error P > 0.05) but underpredicted concentrations from the outside institution (validation B; median average fold error = 0.6 and numerical prediction distribution error P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The model demonstrated adequate predictive performance for an external data set in the same institution but not from an outside institution. Larger sample sizes, use of data from multiple institutions, and external evaluation in development of popPK models in neonates may improve generalizability of dosing recommendations arising from single-institution studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario R. Sampson
- Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, NC
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Adam Frymoyer
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
| | - Benjamin Rattray
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - C. Michael Cotten
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Brian Smith
- Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, NC
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Edmund Capparelli
- Schools of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | | | - Michael Cohen-Wolkowiez
- Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, NC
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
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38
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Reply to: is there really a need to adjust gentamicin dosing in neonates treated with hypothermia? Ther Drug Monit 2013; 35:872-3. [PMID: 24263646 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0b013e318299f660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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39
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Every 36-h gentamicin dosing in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy receiving hypothermia. J Perinatol 2013; 33:778-82. [PMID: 23702622 PMCID: PMC3762884 DOI: 10.1038/jp.2013.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the impact of a change in the empiric gentamicin dose from 5 mg kg(-1) every 24 h (Q24 h period) to 5 mg kg every 36 h (Q36 h period) on target drug concentration achievement in neonates with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) receiving therapeutic hypothermia. STUDY DESIGN Gentamicin drug concentrations in neonates with HIE receiving therapeutic hypothermia were examined during two time periods in a retrospective chart review. During the initial treatment period (November 2007 to March 2010; n=29), neonates received Q24 h period. During the second treatment period (January 2011 to May 2012; n=23), the dose was changed to Q36 h period. Cooling criteria and protocol remained the same between treatment periods. Gentamicin drug concentrations including achievement of target trough concentrations (<2 mg l(-1)) were compared between treatment periods. Individual Bayesian estimates of gentamicin clearance were also compared. RESULT Neonates with an elevated trough concentration >2 mg l(-1) decreased from 38 to 4% with implementation of a Q36-h dosing interval (P<0.007). The mean gentamicin trough concentration was 2.0 ± 0.8 mg l(-1) during the Q24 h period and 0.9 ± 0.4 mg l(-1) during the Q36 h period (P<0.001). Peak concentrations were minimally impacted (Q24 h 11.4 ± 2.3 mg l(-1) vs Q36 h 10.0 ± 1.9 mg l(-1); P=0.05). The change in gentamicin trough concentration could not be accounted for by differences in gentamicin clearance between treatment periods (P=0.9). CONCLUSION A 5 mg kg(-1) every 36-h gentamicin dosing strategy in neonates with HIE receiving therapeutic hypothermia improved achievement of target trough concentration <2 mg l(-1), while still providing high peak concentration exposure.
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