Characterization of the RSL1-dependent conditional expression system in LNCaP prostate cancer cells and development of a single vector format

The role of small molecules in cell and gene therapy

Cell and gene therapies have achieved impressive results in the treatment of rare genetic diseases using gene corrected stem cells and haematological cancers using chimeric antigen receptor T cells. However, these two fields face significant challenges such as demonstrating long-term efficacy and safety, and achieving cost-effective, scalable manufacturing processes. The use of small molecules is a key approach to overcome these barriers and can benefit cell and gene therapies at multiple stages of their lifecycle. For example, small molecules can be used to optimise viral vector production during manufacturing or used in the clinic to enhance the resistance of T cell therapies to the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment. Here, we review current uses of small molecules in cell and gene therapy and highlight opportunities for medicinal chemists to further consolidate the success of cell and gene therapies.

Engineering cell-based therapies to interface robustly with host physiology

Engineered cell-based therapies comprise a rapidly growing clinical technology for treating disease by leveraging the natural capabilities of cells, including migration, information transduction, and biosynthesis and secretion. There now exists a substantial portfolio of intracellular and extracellular sensors that enable bioengineers to program cells to execute defined responses to specific changes in state or environmental cues. As our capability to construct more sophisticated cellular programs increases, assessing and improving the degree to which cell-based therapies perform as desired in vivo will become an increasingly important consideration and opportunity for technological advancement. In this review, we seek to describe both current capabilities and potential needs for building cell-based therapies that interface with host physiology in a manner that is robust - a phrase we use in this context to describe the achievement of therapeutic efficacy across a range of patients and implementations. We first review the portfolio of sensors and outputs currently available for use in cell-based therapies by highlighting key advancements and current gaps. Then, we propose a conceptual framework for evaluating and pursuing robust clinical performance of engineered cell-based therapies.

Gene therapy approaches against cancer using in vivo and ex vivo gene transfer of interleukin-12

IL-12 is an immunostimulatory cytokine with strong antitumor properties. Systemic administration of IL-12 in cancer patients led to severe toxic effects, prompting the development of gene therapy vectors able to express this cytokine locally in tumors. Both nonviral and viral vectors have demonstrated a high antitumor efficacy in preclinical tumor models. Some of these vectors, including DNA electroporation, adenovirus and ex vivo transduced dendritic cells, were tested in patients, showing low toxicity and moderate antitumor efficacy. IL-12 activity can be potentiated by molecules with immunostimulatory, antiangiogenic or cytotoxic activity. These combination therapies are of clinical interest because they could lower the threshold for IL-12 efficacy, increasing the therapeutic potential of gene therapy and preventing the toxicity mediated by this cytokine.

The co-chaperone DNAJC12 binds to Hsc70 and is upregulated by endoplasmic reticulum stress

Human DNAJC12 is a J domain-containing protein whose regulation, subcellular localization, and function are currently unknown. We show here that the abundance of DNAJC12 in human LNCaP prostate cancer cells is upregulated by the stress-inducing drug A23187 and by the stressregulated transcription factor AIbZIP/CREB3L4. The DNAJC12 gene encodes two isoforms, only one of which (isoform a) is expressed in these cells. Immunofluorescence studies showed that a recombinant DNAJC12 protein is diffusely distributed in the cytoplasm. To identify substrates of DNAJC12, we used an immunoaffinity-mass spectrometry approach in cells that express epitope-tagged DNAJC12. The list of potential DNAJC12-binding proteins that were identified in this screen includes several nucleotide-binding proteins. The most frequently identified partner of DNAJC12 in unstressed cells was Hsc70, a cognate Hsp70 chaperone, whereas in stressed cells, the ER chaperone BiP was frequently associated with DNAJC12. Immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed that the endogenous DNAJC12 and Hsc70 proteins interact in LNCaP cells. These results clarify the role of DNAJC12 in the regulation of Hsp70 function.

Differential regulation of breast cancer-associated genes by progesterone receptor isoforms PRA and PRB in a new bi-inducible breast cancer cell line

Progesterone receptor isoforms (PRA and PRB) are expressed at equal levels in normal mammary cells. However, alteration in PRA/PRB expression is often observed in aggressive breast cancer suggesting differential contribution of PR isoforms in carcinogenesis. The mechanisms underlying such processes remain to be established mainly due to paucity of appropriate cellular models. To investigate the role of PR isoforms and the impact of imbalanced PRA/PRB ratio in transcriptional regulation, we have generated an original human breast cancer cell line conditionally expressing PRA and/or PRB in dose-dependence of non-steroid inducers. We first focused on PR-dependent transcriptional regulation of the paracrine growth factor gene amphiregulin (AREG) playing important role in cancer. Interestingly, unliganded PRA increases AREG expression, independently of estrogen receptor, yet inhibitable by antiprogestins. We show that functional outcome of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on such regulation is highly dependent on PRA/PRB ratio. Using this valuable model, genome-wide transcriptomic studies allowed us to determine the differential effects of PRA and PRB as a function of hormonal status. We identified a large number of novel PR-regulated genes notably implicated in breast cancer and metastasis and demonstrated that imbalanced PRA/PRB ratio strongly impact their expression predicting poor outcome in breast cancer. In sum, our unique cell-based system strongly suggests that PRA/PRB ratio is a critical determinant of PR target gene selectivity and responses to hormonal/growth factor stimuli. These findings provide molecular support for the aggressive phenotype of breast cancers with impaired expression of PRA or PRB.

Insect nuclear receptors

The nuclear receptors (NRs) of metazoans are an ancient family of transcription factors defined by conserved DNA- and ligand-binding domains (DBDs and LBDs, respectively). The Drosophila melanogaster genome project revealed 18 canonical NRs (with DBDs and LBDs both present) and 3 receptors with the DBD only. Annotation of subsequently sequenced insect genomes revealed only minor deviations from this pattern. A renewed focus on functional analysis of the isoforms of insect NRs is therefore required to understand the diverse roles of these transcription factors in embryogenesis, metamorphosis, reproduction, and homeostasis. One insect NR, ecdysone receptor (EcR), functions as a receptor for the ecdysteroid molting hormones of insects. Researchers have developed nonsteroidal ecdysteroid agonists for EcR that disrupt molting and can be used as safe pesticides. An exciting new technology allows EcR to be used in chimeric, ligand-inducible gene-switch systems with applications in pest management and medicine.

Interaction of late apoptotic and necrotic cells with vitronectin

Background

Vitronectin is an abundant plasma glycoprotein identified also as a part of extracellular matrix. Vitronectin is substantially enriched at sites of injured, fibrosing, inflamed, and tumor tissues where it is believed to be involved in wound healing and tissue remodeling. Little is known about the mechanism of vitronectin localization into the damaged tissues.

Methodology/Principal Findings

2E12 antibody has been described to bind a subset of late apoptotic cells. Using immunoisolation followed by mass spectrometry, we identified the antigen recognized by 2E12 antibody as vitronectin. Based on flow cytometry, we described that vitronectin binds to the late apoptotic and necrotic cells in cell cultures in vitro as well as in murine thymus and spleen in vivo. Confocal microscopy revealed that vitronectin binds to an intracellular cytoplasmic structure after the membrane rupture.

Conclusions/Significance

We propose that vitronectin could serve as a marker of membrane disruption in necrosis and apoptosis for flow cytometry analysis. Moreover, we suggest that vitronectin binding to dead cells may represent one of the mechanisms of vitronectin incorporation into the injured tissues.

PRR7 is a transmembrane adaptor protein expressed in activated T cells involved in regulation of T cell receptor signaling and apoptosis

Transmembrane adaptor proteins (TRAPs) are important organizers and regulators of immunoreceptor-mediated signaling. A bioinformatic search revealed several potential novel TRAPs, including a highly conserved protein, proline rich 7 (PRR7), previously described as a component of the PSD-95/N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor protein complex in postsynaptic densities (PSD) of rat neurons. Our data demonstrate that PRR7 is weakly expressed in other tissues but is readily up-regulated in activated human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Transient overexpression of PRR7 in Jurkat T cell line led to gradual apoptotic death dependent on the WW domain binding motif surrounding Tyr-166 in the intracellular part of PRR7. To circumvent the pro-apoptotic effect of PRR7, we generated Jurkat clones with inducible expression of PRR7 (J-iPRR7). In these cells acute induction of PRR7 expression had a dual effect. It resulted in up-regulation of the transcription factor c-Jun and the activation marker CD69 as well as enhanced production of IL-2 after phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and ionomycin treatment. On the other hand, expression of PRR7 inhibited general tyrosine phosphorylation and calcium influx after T cell receptor cross-linking by antibodies. Moreover, we found PRR7 constitutively tyrosine-phosphorylated and associated with Src. Collectively, these data indicate that PRR7 is a potential regulator of signaling and apoptosis in activated T cells.

Spatial control of gene expression within a scaffold by localized inducer release

Gene expression can be controlled in genetically modified cells by employing an inducer/promoter system where presence of the inducer molecule regulates the timing and level of gene expression. By applying the principles of controlled release, it should be possible to control gene expression on a biomaterial surface by the presence or absence of inducer release from the underlying material matrix, thus avoiding alternative techniques that rely upon uptake of relatively labile DNA from material surfaces. To evaluate this concept, a modified ecdysone-responsive gene expression system was transfected into B16 murine cells and the ability of an inducer ligand, which was released from elastomeric poly(ester urethane) urea (PEUU), to initiate gene expression was studied. The synthetic inducer ligand was first loaded into PEUU to demonstrate extended release of the bioactive molecule at various loading densities over a one year period in vitro. Patterning films of PEUU variably-loaded with inducer resulted in spatially controlled cell expression of the gene product (green fluorescent protein, GFP). In porous scaffolds made from PEUU by salt leaching, where the central region was exclusively loaded with inducer, cells expressed GFP predominately in the loaded central regions whereas expression was minimal in outer regions where ligand was omitted. This scaffold system may ultimately provide a means to precisely control progenitor cell commitment in a spatially-defined manner in vivo for soft tissue repair and regeneration.

Controlled expression of functional miR-122 with a ligand inducible expression system

Background

To study the biological function of miRNAs, and to achieve sustained or conditional gene silencing with siRNAs, systems that allow controlled expression of these small RNAs are desirable. Methods for cell delivery of siRNAs include transient transfection of synthetic siRNAs and expression of siRNAs in the form of short hairpins using constitutive RNA polymerase III promoters. Systems employing constitutive RNA polymerase II promoters have been used to express miRNAs. However, for many experimental systems these methods do not offer sufficient control over expression.

Results

We present an inducible mammalian expression system that allows for the conditional expression of short hairpin RNAs that are processed in vivo to generate miRNAs or siRNAs. Using modified nuclear receptors in a two hybrid format and a synthetic ligand, the Rheoswitch system allows rapid and reversible induction of mRNA expression. We evaluated the system's properties using miR-122 as a model miRNA. A short hairpin encoding miR-122 cloned into the expression vector was correctly processed to yield mature miRNA upon induction with ligand and the amount of miRNA produced was commensurate with the concentration of ligand. miR-122 produced in this way was capable of silencing both endogenous target genes and appropriately designed reporter genes. Stable cell lines were obtained, resulting in heritable, consistent and reversible expression of miR-122, a significant advantage over transient transfection. Based on these results, obtained with a microRNA we adapted the method to produce a desired siRNA by designing short hairpins that can be accurately and efficiently processed.

Conclusion

We established an Inducible expression system with a miR-122 backbone that can be used for functional studies of miRNAs and their targets, in heterologous cells that do not normally express the miRNA. Additionally we demonstrate the feasibility of using the miR-122 backbone to express shRNA with a desired siRNA guide strand for inducible RNAi silencing.

Ecdysteroid hormone action

Several reviews devoted to various aspects of ecdysone research have been published during the last few years. Therefore, this article concentrates mainly on the considerable progress in ecdysone research observed recently, and will cover the results obtained during the last 2 years. The main emphasis is put on the molecular mode of ecdysteroid receptor-mediated hormone action. Two examples of interaction with other hormonal signalling pathways are described, namely crosstalk with juvenile hormone and insulin. Some selected, recently investigated examples of the multitude of hormonal responses are described. Finally, ecological aspects and some practical applications are discussed.

Transcriptional profiling of genes that are regulated by the endoplasmic reticulum-bound transcription factor AIbZIP/CREB3L4 in prostate cells

The androgen-regulated protein androgen-induced bZIP (AIbZIP) is a bZIP transcription factor that localizes to the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The physiological role of AIbZIP is unknown, but other ER-bound transcription factors such as ATF6 and SREBPs play a crucial role in the regulation of protein processing and lipid synthesis, respectively. In response to alterations in the intracellular milieu, ATF6 and SREBPs are processed to their transcriptionally active forms by regulated intramembrane proteolysis. In humans, AIbZIP mRNA is expressed in several organs including the pancreas, liver, and gonads, but it is especially abundant in prostate epithelial cells. We therefore used LNCaP human prostate cancer cells as a model to identify stimuli that lead to AIbZIP activation and define the transcriptional targets of AIbZIP. In LNCaP cells, AIbZIP was processed to its transcriptionally active form by drugs that deplete ER calcium stores (i.e., A23187 and caffeine), but it was unaffected by an inhibitor of protein glycosylation (tunicamycin). To identify AIbZIP-regulated genes, we generated LNCaP cell lines that conditionally express the processed form of AIbZIP and used Affymetrix microarrays to screen for AIbZIP-regulated transcripts. Selected genes (n = 48) were validated by Northern blot hybridization. The results reveal that the downstream targets of AIbZIP include genes that are implicated in protein processing (e.g., BAG3, DNAJC12, KDELR3). Strikingly, a large number of AIbZIP-regulated transcripts encode proteins that are involved in transcriptional regulation, small molecule transport, signal transduction, and metabolism. These results suggest that AIbZIP plays a novel role in cell homeostasis.