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A Novel Tanshinone Analog Exerts Anti-Cancer Effects in Prostate Cancer by Inducing Cell Apoptosis, Arresting Cell Cycle at G2 Phase and Blocking Metastatic Ability. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184459. [PMID: 31510010 PMCID: PMC6770861 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa), an epithelial malignant tumor, is the second common cause of cancer death among males in western countries. Thus, the development of new strategies is urgently needed. Tanshinones isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza and its synthetic analogs show various biological activities including anticancer effects. Among them, the tanshinone analog 2-((Glycine methyl ester)methyl)-naphtho (TC7) is the most effective, with better selectivity and lower toxicity. Therefore, in this work, the effect of TC7 against PCa was investigated through assessing the molecular mechanisms regulating the growth, metastasis, and invasion of PCa cells. Human PCa cells, PC3 and LNCAP, were used to evaluate TC7 mechanisms of action in vitro, while male BALB/c nude mice were used for in vivo experiments by subjecting each mouse to a subcutaneous injection of PC3 cells into the right flank to evaluate TC7 effects on tumor volume. Our in vitro results showed that TC7 inhibited cell proliferation by arresting the cell cycle at G2/M through the regulation of cyclin b1, p53, GADD45A, PLK1, and CDC2/cyclin b1. In addition, TC7 induced cell apoptosis by regulating apoptosis-associated genes such as p53, ERK1, BAX, p38, BCL-2, caspase-8, cleaved-caspase-8, PARP1, and the phosphorylation level of ERK1 and p38. Furthermore, it decreased DNA synthesis and inhibited the migration and invasion ability by regulating VEGF-1 and MMP-9 protein expression. Our in vivo evidence supports the conclusion that TC7 could be considered as a potential promising chemotherapeutic candidate in the treatment of PCa.
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Proteomic analysis of human prostate cancer PC-3M-1E8 cells and PC-3M-2B4 cells of same origin but with different metastatic potential. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206139. [PMID: 30379883 PMCID: PMC6209233 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most frequently diagnosed cancer and the fifth leading cause of death from cancer in men worldwide. Increased understanding of the prostate cancer metastasis mechanisms will help identify more efficient intervention strategies to prevent or treat this deadly disease in the future. To identify the candidate proteins that contribute to metastasis of PCa, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based proteomic analysis was performed to explore differentially expressed proteins between two homologous human prostate cancer cell lines including highly-metastatic PC-3M-1E8 cell line and poorly-metastatic PC-3M-2B4 cell line. Here, a total of 58 proteins were identified to be significantly differentially expressed between PC-3M-1E8 and PC-3M-2B4 cells, which were further verified using real-time quantitative PCR and western blot analysis. The bioinformatic analysis suggested that the differentially expressed proteins, like MMP1 and FHL1, may contribute to the higher metastatic ability of PC-3M-1E8 cells than PC-3M-2B4 cells. In addition, functional analyses proved MMP1’s positive effect on the higher metastatic ability of PC-3M-1E8 cells than PC-3M-2B4 cells. These findings provided a unique resource to specifically reveal the complex molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying the progression of prostate cancer from poorly-metastatic to highly-metastatic stage.
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Park SW, Kim JH, Lee HJ, Shin DH, Lee SD, Yoon S. The Expression of Androgen Receptor and Its Variants in Human Prostate Cancer Tissue according to Disease Status, and Its Prognostic Significance. World J Mens Health 2018; 37:68-77. [PMID: 29756415 PMCID: PMC6305860 DOI: 10.5534/wjmh.180003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To evaluate changes in the expression of androgen receptor (AR) and its variants (ARVs) in human prostate cancer (PCa) tissues according to disease status, and its prognostic significance following radical prostatectomy (RP). Materials and Methods A total of 282 PCa cases were evaluated, which included 252 localized PCa, 8 metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), and 22 benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) cases. Samples were collected from patients who underwent RP or transurethral resection and were stored in ethically approved tissue banks. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry were performed for AR and ARVs. Each tissue was confirmed as cancerous (greater than 80%) using hematoxylin and eosin staining. AR and ARVs expression was compared according to disease status. The biochemical recurrence free survival (BCRFS) rates in men with localized PCa was analyzed according to AR and ARV7 expression using the Kaplan-Meier curve. Results Only 58 of the 252 localized PCa were included in the analysis because of insufficient cancer tissue. AR and ARV7 mRNA expression was higher in the CRPC tissue than in the localized PCa tissue (p=0.025, p=0.002, respectively). In localized PCa tissue, high AR mRNA and protein level was associated with a low BCRFS rate (log-ranked, p=0.019, p<0.001, respectively). Conclusions Overall AR and ARV7 mRNA expression levels were increased in CRPC tissues compared to localized PCa and BPH tissues. High AR protein and mRNA expression in the tumor tissue may be considered a predictive factor of BCRFS following RP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Woo Park
- Department of Urology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Jung Hee Kim
- Department of Urology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Hyun Jung Lee
- Department of Pathology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Shin
- Department of Pathology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Sang Don Lee
- Department of Urology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Sik Yoon
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea.
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Kim JH, Lee H, Shin EA, Kim DH, Choi JB, Kim SH. Implications of Bcl-2 and its interplay with other molecules and signaling pathways in prostate cancer progression. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2017; 21:911-920. [PMID: 28816549 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2017.1369044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Among several genetic alterations involved in the progression of prostate cancer, B cell lymphoma gene number 2 (BCL-2) is an important target molecule in the progression of androgen-independent prostate cancer (AIPC) after androgen ablation or castration. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism of BCL-2 in prostate cancer progression remains elusive and controversial. In the current review, we discuss the critical role of BCL-2 in the carcinogenesis of prostate cancer with experimental evidences on the BCL-2 molecular networks in AIPC and androgen-dependent prostate cancer (ADPC) and subsequently suggest perspective research targeting BCL-2. Areas covered: This review focused on the molecular implications of BCL-2 in association with other molecules and signaling pathways involved in the progression and carcinogenesis of prostate cancer. Expert opinion: BCL-2 plays a pivotal role in the progression of AIPC than in ADPC since androgen represses BCL-2. BCL-2 acts as a pro-survival molecule in association with androgen-related signaling in the progression of ADPC, while BCL-2 upregulation, PTEN loss, PI3K/AKT phosphorylation and receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) activation are primarily involved in AIPC. To identify more effective prostate cancer therapy, further mechanistic studies are required with BCL-2 inhibitors in AIPC and ADPC, considering a multi-target therapy against BCL-2 and its related signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Ha Kim
- a Cancer Molecular Targeted Herbal Research Center, College of Korean Medicine , Kyung Hee University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Hyemin Lee
- a Cancer Molecular Targeted Herbal Research Center, College of Korean Medicine , Kyung Hee University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Eun Ah Shin
- a Cancer Molecular Targeted Herbal Research Center, College of Korean Medicine , Kyung Hee University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Dong Hee Kim
- b Department of East West Medical Science, Graduate School of East West Medical Science , Kyung Hee University , Yongin , South Korea
| | - Jhin Baek Choi
- b Department of East West Medical Science, Graduate School of East West Medical Science , Kyung Hee University , Yongin , South Korea
| | - Sung-Hoon Kim
- a Cancer Molecular Targeted Herbal Research Center, College of Korean Medicine , Kyung Hee University , Seoul , South Korea
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Ning P, Zhong JG, Jiang F, Zhang Y, Zhao J, Tian F, Li W. Role of protein S in castration-resistant prostate cancer-like cells. Endocr Relat Cancer 2016; 23:595-607. [PMID: 27342144 DOI: 10.1530/erc-16-0126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) cells survive the androgen-deprivation condition is crucial for treatment of this advanced prostate cancer (PCa). Here, we reported for the first time the up-regulation of protein S (PROS), an anticoagulant plasma glycoprotein with multiple biological functions, in androgen-insensitive PCa cells and in experimentally induced castration-resistant PCa cells. Overexpression of exogenous PROS in LNCaP cells reduced androgen deprivation-induced apoptosis and enhanced anchorage-dependent clonogenic ability under androgen deprivation condition. Reciprocally, PROS1 knockdown inhibited cell invasiveness and migration, caused the growth inhibition of castration-resistant tumor xenograft under androgen-depleted conditions, and potentiated Taxol (a widely prescribed anti-neoplastic agent)-mediated cell death in PC3 cells. Furthermore, PROS overexpression significantly stimulated AKT activation but failed to evoke oxidative stress in LNCaP cells under normal condition, suggesting that the malignance-promoting effects of the above-mentioned pathway may occur in the order of oxidative stress/PROS/AKT. The potential mechanism may be due to control of oxidative stress-elicited activation of PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. Taken together, our gain-of-function, loss-of-function analyses suggest that PROS may facilitate cell proliferation and promote castration resistance in human castration-resistant PCa-like cells via its apoptosis-regulating property. Future study emphasizing on delineating how PROS regulate cellular processes controlling transformation during the development of castration resistance should open new doors for the development of novel therapeutic targets for CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Ning
- Department of Histology and EmbryologyFourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China Department of Tumor Radiotherapy3rd Hospital of PLA, Bao Ji, China
| | - Jia-Guo Zhong
- Section 2 of Department of Surgery42nd Hospital of PLA, Jiajiang County Leshan City, Sichuan, China
| | - Fan Jiang
- Department of Tumor Radiotherapy3rd Hospital of PLA, Bao Ji, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Tumor Radiotherapy3rd Hospital of PLA, Bao Ji, China
| | - Jie Zhao
- Department of Histology and EmbryologyFourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Feng Tian
- Department of Thoracic SurgeryTangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Histology and EmbryologyFourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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Influence of polymorphisms of UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGT) 2B family genes UGT2B15, UGT2B17 and UGT2B28 on the development of prostate cancer in Korean men. Genes Genomics 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-015-0379-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Detchokul S, Elangovan A, Crampin EJ, Davis MJ, Frauman AG. Network analysis of an in vitro model of androgen-resistance in prostate cancer. BMC Cancer 2015; 15:883. [PMID: 26553226 PMCID: PMC4640359 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-015-1884-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The development of androgen resistance is a major limitation to androgen deprivation treatment in prostate cancer. We have developed an in vitro model of androgen-resistance to characterise molecular changes occurring as androgen resistance evolves over time. Our aim is to understand biological network profiles of transcriptomic changes occurring during the transition to androgen-resistance and to validate these changes between our in vitro model and clinical datasets (paired samples before and after androgen-deprivation therapy of patients with advanced prostate cancer). METHODS We established an androgen-independent subline from LNCaP cells by prolonged exposure to androgen-deprivation. We examined phenotypic profiles and performed RNA-sequencing. The reads generated were compared to human clinical samples and were analysed using differential expression, pathway analysis and protein-protein interaction networks. RESULTS After 24 weeks of androgen-deprivation, LNCaP cells had increased proliferative and invasive behaviour compared to parental LNCaP, and its growth was no longer responsive to androgen. We identified key genes and pathways that overlap between our cell line and clinical RNA sequencing datasets and analysed the overlapping protein-protein interaction network that shared the same pattern of behaviour in both datasets. Mechanisms bypassing androgen receptor signalling pathways are significantly enriched. Several steroid hormone receptors are differentially expressed in both datasets. In particular, the progesterone receptor is significantly differentially expressed and is part of the interaction network disrupted in both datasets. Other signalling pathways commonly altered in prostate cancer, MAPK and PI3K-Akt pathways, are significantly enriched in both datasets. CONCLUSIONS The overlap between the human and cell-line differential expression profiles and protein networks was statistically significant showing that the cell-line model reproduces molecular patterns observed in clinical castrate resistant prostate cancer samples, making this cell line a useful tool in understanding castrate resistant prostate cancer. Pathway analysis revealed similar patterns of enriched pathways from differentially expressed genes of both human clinical and cell line datasets. Our analysis revealed several potential mechanisms and network interactions, including cooperative behaviours of other nuclear receptors, in particular the subfamily of steroid hormone receptors such as PGR and alteration to gene expression in both the MAPK and PI3K-Akt signalling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujitra Detchokul
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia.
| | - Aparna Elangovan
- Systems Biology Laboratory, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Edmund J Crampin
- Systems Biology Laboratory, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
- School of Mathematics & Statistics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
- School of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Melissa J Davis
- Systems Biology Laboratory, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Albert G Frauman
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia.
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Ishikura N, Kawata H, Nishimoto A, Nakamura R, Tsunenari T, Watanabe M, Tachibana K, Shiraishi T, Yoshino H, Honma A, Emura T, Ohta M, Nakagawa T, Houjo T, Corey E, Vessella RL, Aoki Y, Sato H. CH5137291, an androgen receptor nuclear translocation-inhibiting compound, inhibits the growth of castration-resistant prostate cancer cells. Int J Oncol 2015; 46:1560-72. [PMID: 25634071 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2015.2860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance of prostate cancer to castration is currently an unavoidable problem. The major mechanisms underlying such resistance are androgen receptor (AR) overexpression, androgen-independent activation of AR, and AR mutation. To address this problem, we developed an AR pure antagonist, CH5137291, with AR nuclear translocation-inhibiting activity, and compared its activity and characteristics with that of bicalutamide. Cell lines corresponding to the mechanisms of castration resistance were used: LNCaP-BC2 having AR overexpression and LNCaP-CS10 having androgen-independent AR activation. VCaP and LNCaP were used as hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cells. In vitro functional assay clearly showed that CH5137291 inhibited the nuclear translocation of wild-type ARs as well as W741C- and T877A-mutant ARs. In addition, it acted as a pure antagonist on the transcriptional activity of these types of ARs. In contrast, bicalutamide did not inhibit the nuclear translocation of these ARs, and showed a partial/full agonistic effect on the transcriptional activity. CH5137291 inhibited cell growth more strongly than bicalutamide in VCaP and LNCaP cells as well as in LNCaP-BC2 and LNCaP-CS10 cells in vitro. In xenograft models, CH5137291 strongly inhibited the tumor growth of LNCaP, LNCaP-BC2, and LNCaP-CS10, whereas bicalutamide showed a weaker effect in LNCaP and almost no effect in LNCaP-BC2 and LNCaP-CS10 xenografts. Levels of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in plasma correlated well with the antitumor effect of both agents. CH5137291 inhibited the growth of LNCaP tumors that had become resistant to bicalutamide treatment. A docking model suggested that CH5137291 intensively collided with the M895 residue of helix 12, and therefore strongly inhibited the folding of helix 12, a cause of AR agonist activity, in wild-type and W741C-mutant ARs. In cynomolgus monkeys, the serum concentration of CH5137291 increased dose-dependently and PSA level decreased 80% at 100 mg/kg. CH5137291 is expected to offer a novel therapeutic approach against major types of castration-resistant prostate cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyuki Ishikura
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Kawata
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Ayako Nishimoto
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Ryo Nakamura
- Chugai Research Institute for Medical Science, Inc., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Tsunenari
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Miho Watanabe
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Kazutaka Tachibana
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Takuya Shiraishi
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Yoshino
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Akie Honma
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Takashi Emura
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Masateru Ohta
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Toshito Nakagawa
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Takao Houjo
- Chugai Research Institute for Medical Science, Inc., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Eva Corey
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Robert L Vessella
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Yuko Aoki
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Sato
- Research Division, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Kamakura, Kanagawa 247-8530, Japan
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Sampson N, Neuwirt H, Puhr M, Klocker H, Eder IE. In vitro model systems to study androgen receptor signaling in prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2013; 20:R49-64. [PMID: 23447570 DOI: 10.1530/erc-12-0401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common causes of male cancer-related death in Western nations. The cellular response to androgens is mediated via the androgen receptor (AR), a ligand-inducible transcription factor whose dysregulation plays a key role during PCa development and progression following androgen deprivation therapy, the current mainstay systemic treatment for advanced PCa. Thus, a better understanding of AR signaling and new strategies to abrogate AR activity are essential for improved therapeutic intervention. Consequently, a large number of experimental cell culture models have been established to facilitate in vitro investigations into the role of AR signaling in PCa development and progression. These different model systems mimic distinct stages of this heterogeneous disease and exhibit differences with respect to AR expression/status and androgen responsiveness. Technological advances have facilitated the development of in vitro systems that more closely reflect the physiological setting, for example via the use of three-dimensional coculture to study the interaction of prostate epithelial cells with the stroma, endothelium, immune system and tissue matrix environment. This review provides an overview of the most commonly used in vitro cell models currently available to study AR signaling with particular focus on their use in addressing key questions relating to the development and progression of PCa. It is hoped that the continued development of in vitro models will provide more biologically relevant platforms for mechanistic studies, drug discovery and design ensuring a more rapid transfer of knowledge from the laboratory to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Sampson
- Division of Experimental Urology, Department of Urology, Innsbruck Medical University, Anichstraße 35, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Krycer JR, Brown AJ. Does changing androgen receptor status during prostate cancer development impact upon cholesterol homeostasis? PLoS One 2013; 8:e54007. [PMID: 23320115 PMCID: PMC3540066 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent evidence associates prostate cancer with high cholesterol levels, with cholesterol being an important raw material for cell-growth. Within the cell, cholesterol homeostasis is maintained by two master transcription factors: sterol-regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) and liver X receptor (LXR). We previously showed that the androgen receptor, a major player in prostate cell physiology, toggles these transcription factors to promote cholesterol accumulation. Given that prostate cancer therapy targets the androgen receptor, selecting for cells with altered androgen receptor activity, how would this affect SREBP-2 and LXR activity? Using a novel prostate cancer progression model, we explored how this crosstalk between the androgen receptor and cholesterol homeostasis changes during prostate cancer development. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Firstly, we characterised our progression model, which involved 1) culturing LNCaP cells at physiological testosterone levels to generate androgen-tolerant LNCaP-305 cells, and 2) culturing LNCaP-305 with the anti-androgen casodex to generate castration-resistant LNCaP-364 cells. This progression was accompanied by upregulated androgen receptor expression, typically seen clinically, and a reduction in androgen receptor activity. Although this influenced how SREBP-2 and LXR target genes responded to androgen treatment, cellular cholesterol levels and their response to changing sterol status was similar in all LNCaP sub-lines. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE Overall cholesterol homeostasis is unaffected by changing androgen receptor activity in prostate cancer cells. This does not negate the relationship between androgens and cholesterol homeostasis, but rather suggests that other factors compensate for altered androgen receptor activity. Given that cholesterol regulation is maintained during progression, this supports the growing idea that cholesterol metabolism is a suitable target for prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Robert Krycer
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andrew John Brown
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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Liu T, Wu LY, Fulton MD, Johnson JM, Berkman CE. Prolonged androgen deprivation leads to downregulation of androgen receptor and prostate-specific membrane antigen in prostate cancer cells. Int J Oncol 2012; 41:2087-92. [PMID: 23041906 PMCID: PMC3583693 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2012.1649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Emergence of androgen-independent cancer cells during androgen deprivation therapy presents a significant challenge to successful treatment outcomes in prostate cancer. Elucidating the role of androgen deprivation in the transition from an androgen-dependent to an androgen-independent state may enable the development of more effective therapeutic strategies against prostate cancer. Herein, we describe an in vitro model for assessing the effects of continuous androgen-deprivation on prostate cancer cells (LNCaP) with respect to the expression of two prostate-specific markers: the androgen receptor (AR) and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA). Compared with androgen-containing normal growth medium, androgen-deprived medium apparently induced the concomitant downregulation of AR and PSMA over time. Decreased protein levels were confirmed by fluorescence imaging, western blotting and enzymatic activity studies. In contrast to the current understanding of AR and PSMA in prostate cancer progression, our data demonstrated that androgen-deprivation induced a decrease in AR and PSMA levels in androgen-sensitive LNCaP cells, which may be associated with the development of more aggressive disease-state following androgen deprivation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiancheng Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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12
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Yu S, Jia L, Zhang Y, Wu D, Xu Z, Ng CF, To KKW, Huang Y, Chan FL. Increased expression of activated endothelial nitric oxide synthase contributes to antiandrogen resistance in prostate cancer cells by suppressing androgen receptor transactivation. Cancer Lett 2012; 328:83-94. [PMID: 22995070 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2012.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Development of antiandrogen-resistance in advanced prostate cancer involves multiple androgen receptor (AR)-dependent and -independent pathways. Here, we demonstrated that endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) exhibited an overexpression pattern in hormone-refractory prostate cancer and several models of advanced hormone-resistant prostate cancer. We further established a novel in vitro model of antiandrogen-resistant prostate cancer (LNCaP-BC) by long-term bicalutamide treatment. Besides antiandrogen-resistant and other enhanced malignant growth phenotypes, LNCaP-BC cells exhibited an increased activated eNOS expression and NO production, and suppressed AR transactivation status. Treatment with a NOS inhibitor L-NAME could re-sensitize the growth response to bicalutamide and enhance the AR transactivation in LNCaP-BC cells. Together, our present findings indicate that increased NO production by acquired increased expression of activated eNOS could contribute to the antiandrogen-resistant growth of prostate cancer cells, via a mechanism of NO-mediated suppression of AR activity, and also targeting eNOS could be a potential therapeutic strategy for antiandrogen-resistant prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Yu
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China.
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Abstract
The clinical course of prostate cancer is grouped into two broad phases. The first phase, which is the growth of the androgen-dependent cancer (AD-Ca) responds well to androgen depletion treatment while the second phase, that could be termed as androgen depletion-independent cancer (ADI-Ca) does not. We used two separate prostate tumors, one AD-Ca and one ADI-Ca from the conditional Pten deletion mouse model to generate from each a pair of cell lines. The AD-Ca cell lines (E2 and E4) and the ADI-Ca cell lines (cE1 and cE2) display bi-allelic deletion at the Pten gene locus, an event which is specific for the prostate epithelium for this mouse model, and a fairly similar level of expression of the androgen receptor (AR). The ADI-Ca cell lines (cE series) grow well in the absence of androgen, display increased AR transcription under androgen-deprived environment, and retain the sensitivity to increased proliferation when androgen is supplemented. The AD-Ca cell lines (E series) grow slowly in the absence of androgen, and, unlike cE cells, do not show increased AR expression when maintained in the absence of androgen. The detection of epithelial cell markers, such as CK8, CK14, CK18 and E-cadherin in the cE series is conforming with the polygonal epithelial morphology of these cells in culture. The E cells also present mostly polygonal-shaped morphology with a small percent of cells with fibroblastoid morphology, and produce little or very low levels of cytokeratins, but increased levels of vimentin, Twist and Slug, the markers known to be associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Each of the cell lines, when inoculated subcutaneously into male or female NOD.SCID mice induced tumors within eight weeks with 100% incidence. Histopathological examinations of the tumor sections, however, led to noticeable biological differences. The cE series engenders adenocarcinomas, particularly in male hosts, and the E series induces sarcomatoid carcinomas (positively stained for CK8 and AR as well as vimentin expression) in either male or female hosts. These new cell lines are promising models for the elucidation of the androgen metabolism and their role in prostate cancer.
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Otsuka T, Iguchi K, Fukami K, Ishii K, Usui S, Sugimura Y, Hirano K. Androgen receptor W741C and T877A mutations in AIDL cells, an androgen-independent subline of prostate cancer LNCaP cells. Tumour Biol 2011; 32:1097-102. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-011-0209-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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15
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Tanaka H, Yoshida M, Tanimura H, Fujii T, Sakata K, Tachibana Y, Ohwada J, Ebiike H, Kuramoto S, Morita K, Yoshimura Y, Yamazaki T, Ishii N, Kondoh O, Aoki Y. The selective class I PI3K inhibitor CH5132799 targets human cancers harboring oncogenic PIK3CA mutations. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:3272-81. [PMID: 21558396 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-10-2882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway plays a central role in cell proliferation and survival in human cancer. PIK3CA mutations, which are found in many cancer patients, activate the PI3K pathway, resulting in cancer development and progression. We previously identified CH5132799 as a novel PI3K inhibitor. Thus, this study aimed to clarify the biochemical and antitumor activity of CH5132799 and elucidate the correlation between CH5132799 response and genetic alterations in the PI3K pathway. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Kinase inhibitory activity was profiled in cell-free assays. A large panel of human breast, ovarian, prostate, and endometrial cancer cell lines, as well as xenograft models, were used to evaluate the antitumor activity of CH5132799, followed by analysis for genetic alterations. Effects on Akt phosphorylation induced by mTORC1 inhibition were tested with CH5132799 and compared with mTORC1 and PI3K/mTOR inhibitors. RESULTS CH5132799 selectively inhibited class I PI3Ks and PI3Kα mutants in in vitro kinase assays. Tumors harboring PIK3CA mutations were significantly sensitive to CH5132799 in vitro and were remarkably regressed by CH5132799 in in vivo mouse xenograft models. In combination with trastuzumab, tumors disappeared in the trastuzumab-insensitive breast cancer model with the PIK3CA mutation. Moreover, CH5132799 did not reverse a negative feedback loop of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and induced regression against tumors regrown after long-term mTORC1 inhibitor treatment. CONCLUSIONS CH5132799 is a selective class I PI3K inhibitor with potent antitumor activity against tumors harboring the PIK3CA mutations. Prediction of CH5132799 response on the basis of PIK3CA mutations could enable patient stratification in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Tanaka
- Pharmaceutical Research Department 2, Kamakura Research Laboratories, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co Ltd, Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan.
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