p53 dependent LGR5 inhibition and caspase 3 activation are critically involved in apoptotic effect of compound K and its combination therapy potential in HCT116 cells

Anti-Colorectal Cancer Activity of Panax and Its Active Components, Ginsenosides: A Review

Colorectal cancer (CRC) poses a significant health burden worldwide and necessitates novel treatment approaches with fewer side effects than conventional chemotherapy. Many natural compounds have been tested as possible cancer treatments. Plants in the genus Panax have been widely studied due to their therapeutic potential for various diseases such as inflammatory disorders and cancers. Extracts from plants of genus Panax activate upstream signals, including those related to autophagy and the generation of reactive oxygen species, to induce intrinsic apoptosis in CRC cells. The root extract of Panax notoginseng (P. notoginseng) regulated the gut microbiota to enhance the T-cell-induced immune response against CRC. Protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides, especially Rh2, Rg3, Rb1, and Rb2, significantly reduced proliferation of CRC cells and tumor size in a xenograft mouse model, as well as targeting programmed death (PD)-1 to block the immune checkpoint of CRC cells. Moreover, modified nanocarriers with ginsenosides upregulated drug efficacy, showing that ginsenosides can also be utilized as drug carriers. An increasing body of studies has demonstrated the potential of the genus Panax in curing CRC. Ginsenosides are promising active compounds in the genus Panax, which can also support the activity of conventional cancer therapies.

Honokiol inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition and hepatic fibrosis via activation of Ecadherin/GSK3β/JNK and inhibition of AKT/ERK/p38/β-catenin/TMPRSS4 signaling axis

Though Honokiol was known to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antithrombotic, anti-viral, metabolic, antithrombotic, and neurotrophic activities, the underlying mechanisms of Honokiol on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) mediated liver fibrosis still remain elusive so far. Anti-EMT and antifibrotic effects of Honokiol were explored in murine AML-12 hepatocyte cells by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, wound healing assay, Western blotting and also in CCl4-induced liver injury mouse model by immunohistochemistry. Honokiol significantly suppressed transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)-induced EMT and migration of AML-12 cells along with decreased EMT phenotypes such as loss of cell adhesion and formation of fibroblast like mesenchymal cells in TGF-β1-treated AML-12 cells. Consistently, Honokiol suppressed the expression of Snail and transmembrane protease serine 4 (TMPRSS4), but not p-Smad3, and activated E-cadherin in TGF-β1-treated AML-12 cells. Additionally, Honokiol reduced the expression of β-catenin, p-AKT, p-ERK, p-p38 and increased phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) and JNK in TGF-β1-treated AML-12 cells via TGF-β1/nonSmad pathway. Conversely, GSK3β inhibitor SB216763 reversed the ability of Honokiol to reduce Snail, β-catenin and migration and activate E-cadherin in TGF-β1-treated AML-12 cells. Also, Honokiol suppressed hepatic steatosis and necrosis by reducing the expression of TGF-β1 and α-SMA in liver tissues of CCl4 treated mice. These findings provide scientific evidence that Honokiol suppresses EMT and hepatic fibrosis via activation of E-cadherin/GSK3β/JNK and inhibition of AKT/ERK/p38/β-catenin/TMPRSS4 signaling axis.

Research progress of ginseng in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers

Cancer has become one of the major causes of human death. Several anticancer drugs are available; howeve their use and efficacy are limited by the toxic side effects and drug resistance caused by their continuous application. Many natural products have antitumor effects with low toxicity and fewer adverse effects. Moreover, they play an important role in enhancing the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents, reducing toxic side effects, and reversing chemoresistance. Consequently, natural drugs are being applied as potential therapeutic options in the field of antitumor treatment. As natural medicinal plants, some components of ginseng have been shown to have excellent efficacy and a good safety profile for cancer treatment. The pharmacological activities and possible mechanisms of action of ginseng have been identified. Its broad range of pharmacological activities includes antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-stress, anti-fibrotic, central nervous system modulating, cardioprotective, and immune-enhancing effects. Numerous studies have also shown that throuth multiple pathways, ginseng and its active ingredients exert antitumor effects on gastrointestinal (GI) tract tumors, such as esophageal, gastric, colorectal, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Herein, we introduced the main components of ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and sterols, etc., and reviewed the mechanism of action and research progress of ginseng in the treatment of various GI tumors. Futhermore, the pathways of action of the main components of ginseng are discussed in depth to promote the clinical development and application of ginseng in the field of anti-GI tumors.

Therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the most common malignant diseases with high morbidity and mortality rates. Ginseng and its major extracts, ginsenosides, have been used in medical fields for thousands of years. In particular, their huge anti-cancer potential has drawn a great deal of attention in recent years. There is a large body of evidence that has shown that ginseng and its extracts could significantly inhibit tumor development and progression by suppressing cell proliferation, tumor growth, invasion and metastasis, inducing tumor cell apoptosis, regulating tumor-associated immune responses, and improving the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy. Notably, different subtypes of ginsenosides, even those extracted from the same ginseng, have exhibited distinct anti-cancer functions through different mechanisms. Over the past few years, a large number of studies have focused on how ginseng or various ginsenosides influence CRC development. Therefore, the roles and the potential of ginseng and ginsenosides in the treatment of CRC are summarized in this review. In addition, the biochemical properties of ginseng and ginsenosides are also briefly described.

The OmpA of commensal Escherichia coli of CRC patients affects apoptosis of the HCT116 colon cancer cell line

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer ranks third globally among all types of cancers. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota of people with CRC is one of the effective agents in the tumorigenesis and metastasis in this type of cancer. The population of Escherichia coli strains, a component of gut microbiota, is increased in the gut of people with CRC compared with healthy people. So, E.coli strains isolated from these patients may have a role in tumorigenesis. Because the most isolated strains belong to the B2 phylogenuetic group, there seems to be a linkage between the bacterium components and malignancy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this study, the proteomic comparison between isolated Ecoli from CRC patients and healthy people was assayed. The isolated spot was studied by Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) and Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results showed that the expression of Outer membrane protein A (OmpA) protein increased in the commensal E.coli B2 phylogenetic group isolated from CRC patients. Additionally, we analyzed the effect of the OmpA protein on the expression of the four genes related to apoptosis in the HCT116 colon cancer cell line.

RESULTS

This study identified that OmpA protein was overexpressed in the commensal E.coli B2 phylogenetic group isolated from CRC patients compared to the E.coli from the control group. This protein significantly decreased the expression of Bax and Bak, pro-apoptotic genes, as well as the expression of P53 in the HCT116 Cell Line, P < 0.0001. LC-MS and protein bioinformatics results confirmed that this protein is outer membrane protein A, which can bind to nucleic acid and some of the organelle proteins on the eukaryotic cell surface.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our invitro and insilico investigations, OmpA of gut E.coli strains that belong to the B2 phylogenetic group can affect the eukaryotic cell cycle.

Ginsenoside compound K inhibits the proliferation, migration and invasion of Eca109 cell via VEGF-A/Pi3k/Akt pathway

OBJECTIVE

Esophageal cancer, one of the most common cancers in the upper digestive tract and is one of the leading cancer-related mortality worldwide. Accumulating studies found that Ginsenoside compound K (CK) has significantly anti-tumor effects, especially in the suppression of proliferation, migration, as well as invasion in various human cancers. While the effects of Ginsenoside CK in esophageal cancer have not been well studied. In our present study, we aim to explore the functions and mechanisms of Ginsenoside CK in the progression of esophageal cancer cells (Eca109).

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), wound healing, transwell and flow cytometry assays were applied to analyze the effects of Ginsenoside CK in the progression of Eca109 cell, western blot assay was used to investigate the potential downstream signaling pathway after Ginsenoside CK treatment.

RESULTS

Our study found that Ginsenoside CK can suppress cell proliferation, migration and invasion of Eca109 cell. Furthermore, the flow cytometry showed that Ginsenoside CK increased of apoptosis rates in Eca109 cell. The western blot results indicated that Ginsenoside CK decreased the expression of VEGF-A, P-Pi3k and P-Akt proteins. Moreover, the knockdown of VEGF-A gene could suppress cell proliferation, migration, invasion and induce apoptosis in Eca109 cell, and the expression of P-Pi3k and P-Akt proteins were significantly downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that Ginsenoside CK inhibits the proliferation, migration, invasion, and induced apoptosis of Eca109 cell by blocking VEGF-A/Pi3k/Akt signaling pathway.

Gut Microbiota: Therapeutic Targets of Ginseng Against Multiple Disorders and Ginsenoside Transformation

Panax ginseng, as the king of Chinese herb, has significant therapeutic effects on obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, fatty liver disease, colitis, diarrhea, and many other diseases. This review systematically summarized recent findings, which show that ginseng plays its role by regulating gut microbiota diversity, and gut microbiota could also regulate the transformation of ginsenosides. We conclude the characteristics of ginseng in regulating gut microbiota, as the potential targets to prevent and treat metabolic diseases, colitis, neurological diseases, cancer, and other diseases. Ginseng treatment can increase some probiotics such as Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Verrucomicrobia, Akkermansia, and reduce pathogenic bacteria such as Deferribacters, Lactobacillus, Helicobacter against various diseases. Meanwhile, Bacteroides, Eubacterium, and Bifidobacterium were found to be the key bacteria for ginsenoside transformation in vivo. Overall, ginseng can regulate gut microbiome diversity, further affect the synthesis of secondary metabolites, as well as promote the transformation of ginsenosides for improving the absorptivity of ginsenosides. This review can provide better insight into the interaction of ginseng with gut microbiota in multiple disorders and ginsenoside transformation.

c-MYC-mediated TRIB3/P62+ aggresomes accumulation triggers paraptosis upon the combination of everolimus and ginsenoside Rh2

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is abnormally activated in lung cancer. However, the anti-lung cancer effect of mTOR inhibitors as monotherapy is modest. Here, we identified that ginsenoside Rh2, an active component of Panax ginseng C. A. Mey., enhanced the anti-cancer effect of the mTOR inhibitor everolimus both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, ginsenoside Rh2 alleviated the hepatic fat accumulation caused by everolimus in xenograft nude mice models. The combination of everolimus and ginsenoside Rh2 (labeled Eve-Rh2) induced caspase-independent cell death and cytoplasmic vacuolation in lung cancer cells, indicating that Eve-Rh2 prevented tumor progression by triggering paraptosis. Eve-Rh2 up-regulated the expression of c-MYC in cancer cells as well as tumor tissues. The increased c-MYC mediated the accumulation of tribbles homolog 3 (TRIB3)/P62⁺ aggresomes and consequently triggered paraptosis, bypassing the classical c-MYC/MAX pathway. Our study offers a potential effective and safe strategy for the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, we have identified a new mechanism of TRIB3/P62⁺ aggresomes-triggered paraptosis and revealed a unique function of c-MYC.

Anticancer properties and pharmaceutical applications of ginsenoside compound K: A review

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is the major intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginsenosides that exhibits anticancer potential in various cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. The anticancer types, mechanisms, and effects of CK in the past decade have been summarized in this review. Briefly, CK exerts anticancer effects via multiple molecular mechanisms, including the inhibition of proliferation, invasion, and migration, the induction of apoptosis and autophagy, and anti‐angiogenesis. Some signaling pathways play a significant role in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, JNK/MAPK pathway, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, the effects of CK combined with nanocarriers for anticancer efficiency are discussed in this review. Furthermore, we aimed to review the research progress of CK against cancer in the past decade, which might provide theoretical support and effective reference for further research on the medicinal value of small molecules, such as CK.

Inhibition of STAT3/PD-L1 and Activation of miR193a-5p Are Critically Involved in Apoptotic Effect of Compound K in Prostate Cancer Cells

Since the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) signaling plays an important role in tumor-immune microenvironments, in the present study, the role of STAT3/PD-L1 signaling in the apoptotic mechanism of an active ginseng saponin metabolite compound K (CK) was investigated in human prostate cancer cells. Here, CK exerted significant cytotoxicity without hurting RWPE1 normal prostate epithelial cells, increased sub-G1 and cleavage of Poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) and attenuated the expression of pro-PARP and Pro-cysteine aspartyl-specific protease3 (pro-caspase-3) in LANCap, PC-3 and DU145 cells. Further, CK attenuated the expression of p-STAT3 and PD-L1 in DU145 cells along with disrupted the binding of STAT3 to PD-L1. Furthermore, CK effectively abrogated the expression of p-STAT3 and PD-L1 in interferon-gamma (INF-γ)-stimulated DU145cells. Additionally, CK suppressed the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 10 (IL-10) as immune escape-related genes in DU145 cells. Likewise, as STAT3 targets genes, the expression of CyclinD1, c-Myc and B-cell lymphoma-extra-large (Bcl-xL) was attenuated in CK-treated DU145 cells. Notably, CK upregulated the expression of microRNA193a-5p (miR193a-5p) in DU145 cells. Consistently, miR193a-5p mimic suppressed p-STAT3, PD-L1 and pro-PARP, while miR193a-5p inhibitor reversed the ability of CK to attenuate the expression of p-STAT3, PD-L1 and pro-PARP in DU145 cells. Taken together, these findings support evidence that CK induces apoptosis via the activation of miR193a-5p and inhibition of PD-L1 and STAT3 signaling in prostate cancer cells.

Apoptotic effect of compound K in hepatocellular carcinoma cells via inhibition of glycolysis and Akt/mTOR/c-Myc signaling

Since the AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/c-Myc signaling plays a pivotal role in the modulation of aerobic glycolysis and tumor growth, in the present study, the role of AKT/mTOR/c-Myc signaling in the apoptotic effect of Compound K (CK), an active ginseng saponin metabolite, was explored in HepG2 and Huh7 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HCCs). Here, CK exerted significant cytotoxicity, increased sub-G1, and attenuated the expression of pro-Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (pro-PARP) and Pro-cysteine aspartyl-specific protease (pro-caspase3) in HepG2 and Huh7 cells. Consistently, CK suppressed AKT/mTOR/c-Myc and their downstreams such as Hexokinase 2 (HK2) and pyruvate kinase isozymes M2 (PKM2) in HepG2 and Huh7 cells. Additionally, CK reduced c-Myc stability in the presence or absence of cycloheximide in HepG2 cells. Furthermore, AKT inhibitor LY294002 blocked the expression of p-AKT, c-Myc, HK2, PKM2, and pro-cas3 in HepG2 cells. Pyruvate blocked the ability of CK to inhibit p-AKT, p-mTOR, HK2, and pro-Cas3 in treated HepG2 cells. Overall, these findings provide evidence that CK induces apoptosis via inhibition of glycolysis and AKT/mTOR/c-Myc signaling in HCC cells as a potent anticancer candidate for liver cancer clinical translation.

3.0 T MRI IVIM-DWI for predicting the efficacy of neoadjuvant chemoradiation for locally advanced rectal cancer

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine the diagnostic performance of intravoxel incoherent motion (IVIM) on assessing response to neoadjuvant chemoradiation (nCRT) in patients with Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer (LARC).

Methods

50 patients with rectal cancer who underwent magnetic resonance (MR) imaging before and after nCRT, the values of pre-nCRT and post-nCRT IVIM-DWI parameters apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), diffusion coefficient (D), false diffusion coefficient (D*), and perfusion fraction (f), together with the percentage changes (∆% parametric value) induced by nCRT were calculated. According to the patient's response to nCRT, the patients were divided into pathological complete response (pCR) and non-pCR groups, Good Response (GR) group and Poor Response (PR) group, and the above values were compared between different groups. Univariate and multiple logistic regression analysis were done to investigate the relation between different parameters and patient nCRT. Draw ROC curve according to sensitivity and specificity, and compare its diagnostic efficacy.

Results

There were no significant differences in the baseline data of 50 patients. After nCRT, the ADC and D values for LARC increased significantly (all p < 0.05). The pCR group (n = 9) had higher preD*, pref, postD*, ∆%ADC and ∆%D values than the non-pCR group (n = 41) (all p < 0.05). The GR group (n = 17) exhibited higher post D, ∆%ADC and ∆%D values than the PR group (n = 33) (all p < 0.05). From the results of Logistic regression analysis found that ∆%ADC and ∆%D were significantly correlated with patients' response to nCRT. Based on ROC analysis, ∆%D had a higher area under the curve value than ∆%ADC (p = 0.009) in discriminating the pCR from non-pCR groups.

Conclusions

IVIM-DWI technology may be helpful in identifying the pCR and GR patients to nCRT for LARC.