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Shurson GC, Urriola PE, Schroeder DC. Biosecurity and Mitigation Strategies to Control Swine Viruses in Feed Ingredients and Complete Feeds. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2375. [PMID: 37508151 PMCID: PMC10376163 DOI: 10.3390/ani13142375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
No system nor standardized analytical procedures at commercial laboratories exist to facilitate and accurately measure potential viable virus contamination in feed ingredients and complete feeds globally. As a result, there is high uncertainty of the extent of swine virus contamination in global feed supply chains. Many knowledge gaps need to be addressed to improve our ability to prevent virus contamination and transmission in swine feed. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge involving: (1) the need for biosecurity protocols to identify production, processing, storage, and transportation conditions that may cause virus contamination of feed ingredients and complete feed; (2) challenges of measuring virus inactivation; (3) virus survival in feed ingredients during transportation and storage; (4) minimum infectious doses; (5) differences between using a food safety objective versus a performance objective as potential approaches for risk assessment in swine feed; (6) swine virus inactivation from thermal and irradiation processes, and chemical mitigants in feed ingredients and complete feed; (7) efficacy of virus decontamination strategies in feed mills; (8) benefits of functional ingredients, nutrients, and commercial feed additives in pig diets during a viral health challenge; and (9) considerations for improved risk assessment models of virus contamination in feed supply chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Declan C Schroeder
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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2
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Schambow RA, Sampedro F, Urriola PE, van de Ligt JLG, Perez A, Shurson GC. Rethinking the uncertainty of African swine fever virus contamination in feed ingredients and risk of introduction into the United States. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:157-175. [PMID: 34689419 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Economically relevant pathogens, such as African swine fever virus (ASFV), have been shown to survive when experimentally inoculated in some feed ingredients under the environmental conditions in transoceanic transport models. However, these models did not characterize the likelihood of virus survival under various time and temperature processes that feed ingredients undergo before they are added to swine diets. Here, we developed a quantitative risk assessment model to estimate the probability that one or more corn or soybean meal ocean vessels (25,000 tonnes) contaminated with ASFV would be imported into the United States annually. This final probability estimate was conditionally based on five likelihoods: the probability of initial ASFV contamination (p0), ASFV inactivation during processing (p1) and transport (p2), recontamination (pR), and ASFV inactivation while awaiting customs clearance at United States entry (p3). The probability of ASFV inactivation was modelled using corn and soybean (extruded or solvent extracted) processing conditions (times and temperatures), D-values (time to reduce 90% or 1-log) estimated from studies of ASFV thermal inactivation in pork serum (p1), and survival in feed ingredients during transoceanic transport (p2 and p3). 'What-if' scenarios using deterministic values for p0 and pR (1%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) were used to explore their impact on risk. The model estimated complete inactivation of ASFV after extrusion or solvent extraction processes regardless of the initial ASFV contamination probability assumed. The value of recontamination (ranging from 1% to 75%) was highly influential on the risk of one ASFV-contaminated soybean meal vessel entering the United States. Median risk estimates ranged from 0.064% [0.006%-0.60%; 95% probability interval (PI)], assuming a pR of 1.0%, up to 4.67% (0.45%-36.50% 95% PI) assuming a pR of 75.0%. This means that at least one vessel with ASFV-contaminated soybean meal would be imported once every 1563-21 years, respectively. When all raw corn was assumed to be contaminated (p0 = 100%), and no recontamination was assumed to occur (pR = 0%), the median probability of one vessel with ASFV-contaminated corn entering the United States was 2.02% (0.28%-9.43% 95% PI) or once every 50 years. Values of recontamination between 1% and 75% did not substantially change the risk of corn. Days of transport, virus survival during transport (D-value), and number of vessels shipped were the parameters most influential for increased likelihood of a vessel with ASFV-contaminated soybean meal or corn entering the United States. The model helped to identify knowledge gaps that are most influential on output values and serves as a framework that could be updated and parameterized as new scientific information becomes available. We propose that the quantitative risk assessment model developed in this study can be used as a framework for estimating the risk of ASFV entry into the United States and other ASFV-free countries through other types of imported feed ingredients that may potentially become contaminated. Ultimately, this model can be used to develop risk mitigation strategies and critical control points for inactivating ASFV during feed ingredient processing, storage, and transport, and contribute to the design and implementation of biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction of ASFV into the United States and other ASFV-free countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Schambow
- Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.,Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Fernando Sampedro
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.,Environmental Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.,Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jennifer L G van de Ligt
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Andres Perez
- Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.,Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
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3
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Muckey MB, Jones CK, Woodworth JC, Paulk CB, Dritz SS, Gebhardt JT. Using environmental sampling to evaluate the effectiveness of decontamination methods to reduce detection of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus RNA on feed manufacturing surfaces. Transl Anim Sci 2021; 5:txab121. [PMID: 34377952 PMCID: PMC8346718 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txab121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a possible biological hazard in feed mills. If the virus enters a feed mill, it becomes widely distributed and is difficult to decontaminate from both feed contact and non-feed contact surfaces. The objective of this study was to evaluate a variety of liquid and dry decontamination treatments that could be used to reduce the amount of PEDV found on feed manufacturing surfaces. This experiment was designed as a 5 × 10 factorial with five different feed manufacturing surfaces and 10 decontamination treatments with three replicates of each combination. Surfaces included stainless steel, solid polyethylene, woven polypropylene tote bag, rubber, and sealed concrete coupons. One mL (1×105 TCID50/mL) of stock PEDV was applied to each surface and allowed to dry completely for 60 min. Next, for decontamination requiring surface application, the application was performed and allowed 15 min contact time. The quantity of PEDV RNA was determined using quantitative reverse transcription PCR. A decontamination treatment × surface interaction was observed (P < 0.0001), indicating the efficacy of treatment is dependent upon the surface in which it is applied. Within the cement surfaces, the sodium hypochlorite resulted in the greatest (P < 0.05) cycle threshold (Ct) value, followed by formaldehyde which had a greater (P < 0.05) Ct value compared to remaining treatments. Within polyethylene, rubber, and stainless steel surfaces, the formaldehyde treated surfaces had the greatest Ct values (P < 0.05), followed by the sodium hypochlorite treatment, with other treatments all having lower Ct values (P < 0.05). For the woven polyethylene surfaces, the formaldehyde and sodium hypochlorite treatments had greater Ct values compared to all other treatments (P < 0.05). Additional research is necessary to identify the role of decontamination treatment on PEDV infectivity and develop methods for decontamination of feed manufacturing facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary B Muckey
- Department of Grain Science and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan KS 66506, USA
| | - Cassandra K Jones
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan KS 66506, USA
| | - Jason C Woodworth
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan KS 66506, USA
| | - Chad B Paulk
- Department of Grain Science and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan KS 66506, USA
| | - Steve S Dritz
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Jordan T Gebhardt
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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Stenfeldt C, Bertram MR, Meek HC, Hartwig EJ, Smoliga GR, Niederwerder MC, Diel DG, Dee SA, Arzt J. The risk and mitigation of foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of pigs through consumption of contaminated feed. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:72-87. [PMID: 34237198 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Transboundary movement of animal feed and feed ingredients has been identified as a route for pathogen incursions. While imports of animals and animal-derived products are highly regulated for the purpose of infectious disease prevention, there has been less consideration of the viability of infectious agents in inanimate products, such as feed. This study investigated the ability of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) to remain infectious as a contaminant of commercial whole pig feed and select pig feed ingredients, and to establish the minimum infectious dose (MIDF ) required to cause foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in pigs that consumed contaminated feed. FMDV viability in vitro varied depending on virus strain, feed product, and storage temperature, with increased duration of infectivity in soybean meal compared to pelleted whole feed. Specifically, both strains of FMDV evaluated remained viable through to the end of the 37 day observation period in experimentally contaminated soybean meal stored at 4 or 20°C . The MIDF for pigs consuming contaminated feed varied across virus strains and exposure duration in the range of 106.2 to 107 TCID50 . The ability of FMDV to cause infection in exposed pigs was mitigated by pre-treatment of feed with two commercially available feed additives, based on either formaldehyde (SalCURB®) or lactic acid (Guardian™). Our findings demonstrate that FMDV may remain infectious in pig feed ingredients for durations compatible with transoceanic transport. Although the observed MIDF was relatively high, variations in feeding conditions and biophysical characteristics of different virus strains may alter the probability of infection. These findings may be used to parameterize modelling of the risk of FMDV incursions and to regulate feed importation to minimize the risk of inadvertent importation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Stenfeldt
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Miranda R Bertram
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
| | - Haillie C Meek
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA.,PIADC Research participation program, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ethan J Hartwig
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
| | - George R Smoliga
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
| | - Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Diego G Diel
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Scott A Dee
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
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Shurson GC, Urriola PE, van de Ligt JLG. Can we effectively manage parasites, prions, and pathogens in the global feed industry to achieve One Health? Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:4-30. [PMID: 34171167 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prions and certain endoparasites, bacteria, and viruses are internationally recognized as types of disease-causing biological agents that can be transmitted from contaminated feed to animals. Historically, foodborne biological hazards such as prions (transmissible spongiform encephalopathy), endoparasites (Trichinella spiralis, Toxoplasma gondii), and pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157, Clostridium spp., and Campylobacter spp.) were major food safety concerns from feeding uncooked or improperly heated animal-derived food waste and by-products. However, implementation of validated thermal processing conditions along with verifiable quality control procedures has been effective in enabling safe use of these feed materials in animal diets. More recently, the occurrence of global Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus and African Swine Fever Virus epidemics, dependence on international feed ingredient supply chains, and the discovery that these viruses can survive in some feed ingredient matrices under environmental conditions of trans-oceanic shipments has created an urgent need to develop and implement rigorous biosecurity protocols that prevent and control animal viruses in feed ingredients. Implementation of verifiable risk-based preventive controls, traceability systems from origin to destination, and effective mitigation procedures is essential to minimize these food security, safety, and sustainability threats. Creating a new biosafety and biosecurity framework will enable convergence of the diverging One Health components involving low environmental impact and functional feed ingredients that are perceived as having elevated biosafety risks when used in animal feeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jennifer L G van de Ligt
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
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Shurson GC, Palowski A, van de Ligt JLG, Schroeder DC, Balestreri C, Urriola PE, Sampedro F. New perspectives for evaluating relative risks of African swine fever virus contamination in global feed ingredient supply chains. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:31-56. [PMID: 34076354 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
There are no published reports indicating that the African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been detected in feed ingredients or complete feed. This is primarily because there are only a few laboratories in the world that have the biosecurity and analytical capabilities of detecting ASFV in feed. Several in vitro studies have been conducted to evaluate ASFV concentration, viability and inactivation when ASFV was added to various feed ingredients and complete feed. These inoculation studies have shown that some feed matrices support virus survival longer than others and the reasons for this are unknown. Current analytical methodologies have significant limitations in sensitivity, repeatability, ability to detect viable virus particles and association with infectivity. As a result, interpretation of findings using various measures may lead to misleading conclusions. Because of analytical and technical challenges, as well as the lack of ASFV contamination data in feed supply chains, quantitative risk assessments have not been conducted. A few qualitative risk assessments have been conducted, but they have not considered differences in potential scenarios for ASFV contamination between various types of feed ingredient supply chains. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a more holistic understanding of the relative potential risks of ASFV contamination in various global feed ingredient supply chains and provide recommendations for addressing the challenges identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Amanda Palowski
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jennifer L G van de Ligt
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Declan C Schroeder
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Cecilia Balestreri
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Fernando Sampedro
- Environmental Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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Shurson GC, Hung YT, Jang JC, Urriola PE. Measures Matter-Determining the True Nutri-Physiological Value of Feed Ingredients for Swine. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:1259. [PMID: 33925594 PMCID: PMC8146707 DOI: 10.3390/ani11051259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Many types of feed ingredients are used to provide energy and nutrients to meet the nutritional requirements of swine. However, the analytical methods and measures used to determine the true nutritional and physiological ("nutri-physiological") value of feed ingredients affect the accuracy of predicting and achieving desired animal responses. Some chemical characteristics of feed ingredients are detrimental to pig health and performance, while functional components in other ingredients provide beneficial health effects beyond their nutritional value when included in complete swine diets. Traditional analytical procedures and measures are useful for determining energy and nutrient digestibility of feed ingredients, but do not adequately assess their true physiological or biological value. Prediction equations, along with ex vivo and in vitro methods, provide some benefits for assessing the nutri-physiological value of feed ingredients compared with in vivo determinations, but they also have some limitations. Determining the digestion kinetics of the different chemical components of feed ingredients, understanding how circadian rhythms affect feeding behavior and the gastrointestinal microbiome of pigs, and accounting for the functional properties of many feed ingredients in diet formulation are the emerging innovations that will facilitate improvements in precision swine nutrition and environmental sustainability in global pork-production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C. Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; (Y.-T.H.); (J.C.J.); (P.E.U.)
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The Addition of Nature Identical Flavorings Accelerated the Virucidal Effect of Pure Benzoic Acid against African Swine Fever Viral Contamination of Complete Feed. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11041124. [PMID: 33919982 PMCID: PMC8071002 DOI: 10.3390/ani11041124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The African swine fever (ASF) virus is one of the deadliest viruses plaguing the global swine industry. There are no effective treatments for pigs becoming infected with the ASF virus. Eliminating infected pigs is the only effective method to tackle an outbreak. Whole farm biosecurity is therefore critical to prevent the virus from entering in the first place. In recent years, feed and feed ingredients have been identified as potential vectors of viral diseases including ASF. The objective of this research was to simulate contamination of feed by ASF virus in a laboratory setting and use this simulation to test the efficacy of some select feed additives for reducing the amount and viability of this virus in feed. The main result shows that the inoculated virus in feed disappeared in a shorter time when the feed had been treated with the compounds. We conclude that these feed additives could be adopted as part of a comprehensive biosecurity system for pig holdings. Pigs might be protected from feed possibly contaminated by this virus, and the pork supply will thus be less likely to be impacted by this viral disease. Abstract African swine fever virus is one of the most highly contagious and lethal viruses for the global swine industry. Strengthening biosecurity is the only effective measure for preventing the spread of this viral disease. The virus can be transmitted through contaminated feedstuffs and, therefore, research has been conducted to explore corresponding mitigating measures. The purpose of the current study was to test a combination of pure benzoic acid and a blend of nature identical flavorings for their ability to reduce African swine fever viral survival in feed. This virus was inoculated to feed with or without the supplementation of the test compounds, and the viral presence and load were measured by a hemadsorption test and quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction. The main finding was that the combination of pure benzoic acid and nature identical flavorings could expedite the reduction in both viral load and survival in a swine feed. Therefore, this solution could be adopted as a preventive measure for mitigating the risk of contaminated feed by African swine fever virus.
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Lachapelle V, Racicot M, Comeau G, Rhouma M, Leroux A, Noubissie OW, Provost F, Zanabria R, Gaucher ML, Costa M, Chorfi Y, Holley R, Smillie J, Bosch ML, Dumas A, Brockhoff E, Collins S, Snelgrove P, Quessy S. Expert Elicitation To Estimate the Feed Safety Impact of Criteria Included in the Canadian Food Inspection Agency Risk Assessment Model for Feed Mills. J Food Prot 2021; 84:611-627. [PMID: 33232460 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-20-371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is developing an Establishment-based Risk Assessment (ERA) model for commercial and on-farm mills involved in the manufacture, storage, packaging, labeling, or distribution of livestock feed (ERA-Feed Mill model). This model will help inform the allocation of inspection resources on the basis of feed safety risk, including animal health and food safety risk. In a previous study, 34 risk factors, grouped into inherent, mitigation, and compliance clusters, along with assessment criteria were selected. The objective of this current study was to estimate the relative risk (RR) of the 203 assessment criteria on the basis of the impact on feed safety to design an ERA-Feed Mill model algorithm. Furthermore, the intent of this study was to assess the maximum increase or decrease of risk obtained when multiple criteria belonging to a same cluster were identified in a specific feed mill. To do so, a two-round face-to-face expert elicitation was conducted with 28 Canadian feed experts. Results showed no significant association between respondent profiles (years of experience and work sector) and estimated RR. Uniformity of answers between experts improved between rounds. Criteria having the highest increase in risk (median RR ≥ 4) included the presence of materials prohibited to be fed to ruminants in a facility that produces ruminant feed, the presence of multiple livestock species on-site, and historical noncompliances related to the inspection of the feed mill's process control and end-product control programs. Risk mitigation criteria having the highest impact on decreasing the risk were the implementation of feed safety certifications, the use of dedicated manufacturing lines (prohibited materials or medications), and having a hazard sampling plan in place for finished feed. The median RR assigned to each criterion and cluster will be used to build an algorithm of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency's ERA-Feed Mill model. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Lachapelle
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Manon Racicot
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2.,(ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5003-5901 [M. Racicot])
| | - Geneviève Comeau
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Mohamed Rhouma
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2.,Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Alexandre Leroux
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1400 Merivale Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0Y9
| | | | - France Provost
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Romina Zanabria
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1400 Merivale Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0Y9
| | - Marie-Lou Gaucher
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Marcio Costa
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Younès Chorfi
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
| | - Rick Holley
- University of Manitoba, Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2
| | - John Smillie
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A8
| | - My-Lien Bosch
- Animal Nutrition Association of Canada, 300 Sparks Street, Suite 330, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1R 7S3
| | - André Dumas
- Center for Aquaculture Technologies Canada, 20 Hope Street, P.O. Box 388, Souris, Prince Edward Island, Canada C0A 2B0
| | - Egan Brockhoff
- Canadian Pork Council, 900-220 Laurier Avenue West, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1P 5Z9
| | - Stephanie Collins
- Department of Animal Science and Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, 58 Sipu Road, Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada B2N 5E3; and
| | - Phil Snelgrove
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 59 Camelot Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0Y9
| | - Sylvain Quessy
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada J2S 2M2
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10
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Dee S, Shah A, Jones C, Singrey A, Hanson D, Edler R, Spronk G, Niederwerder M, Nelson E. Evidence of viral survival in representative volumes of feed and feed ingredients during long-distance commercial transport across the continental United States. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:149-156. [PMID: 33763985 PMCID: PMC9290857 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis that feed ingredients could serve as vehicles for the transport and transmission of viral pathogens was first validated under laboratory conditions. To bridge the gap from the laboratory to the field, this current project tested whether three significant viruses of swine could survive in feed ingredients during long-distance commercial transport across the continental US. One-metric tonne totes of soybean meal (organic and conventional) and complete feed were spiked with a 10 ml mixture of PRRSV 174, PEDV and SVA and transported for 23 days in a commercial semi-trailer truck, crossing 29 states, and 10,183 km. Samples were tested for the presence of viral RNA by PCR, and for viable virus in soy-based samples by swine bioassay and in complete feed samples by natural feeding. Viable PRRSV, PEDV and SVA were detected in both soy products and viable PEDV and SVA in complete feed. These results provide the first evidence that viral pathogens of pigs can survive in representative volumes of feed and feed ingredients during long-distance commercial transport across the continental United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Dee
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
| | | | - Cassandra Jones
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Aaron Singrey
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
| | - Dan Hanson
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
| | - Roy Edler
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
| | - Gordon Spronk
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
| | - Megan Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Eric Nelson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
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11
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Yoon BK, Jeon WY, Sut TN, Cho NJ, Jackman JA. Stopping Membrane-Enveloped Viruses with Nanotechnology Strategies: Toward Antiviral Drug Development and Pandemic Preparedness. ACS NANO 2021; 15:125-148. [PMID: 33306354 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c07489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Membrane-enveloped viruses are a leading cause of viral epidemics, and there is an outstanding need to develop broad-spectrum antiviral strategies to treat and prevent enveloped virus infections. In this review, we critically discuss why the lipid membrane surrounding enveloped virus particles is a promising antiviral target and cover the latest progress in nanotechnology research to design and evaluate membrane-targeting virus inhibition strategies. These efforts span diverse topics such as nanomaterials, self-assembly, biosensors, nanomedicine, drug delivery, and medical devices and have excellent potential to support the development of next-generation antiviral drug candidates and technologies. Application examples in the areas of human medicine and agricultural biosecurity are also presented. Looking forward, research in this direction is poised to strengthen capabilities for virus pandemic preparedness and demonstrates how nanotechnology strategies can help to solve global health challenges related to infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Kyeong Yoon
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Yong Jeon
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Tun Naw Sut
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | - Nam-Joon Cho
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | - Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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12
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Huan H, Zhang K, He J, Zhang J. A DNA microarray assay for authenticating five important marine mammal species in food and feed. Food Chem 2021; 348:129136. [PMID: 33516996 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Material identification in processed and unprocessed food and feed is crucial for ensuring the safety and hygiene of food and feed products. Therefore, to identify possible marine mammal components in feed, we study developed a DNA microarray with species-specific oligonucleotide probes that enable the rapid identification of five important marine mammal species (dolphins, seals, sea lions, white whales, and finless porpoises). The assay was tested using five target marine mammal species, and the probe patterns were compared with those of three fish meals (for feed) to see if they contained traces of marine mammals. All five marine mammal species could be distinguished by the microarray, and no marine mammal-derived ingredients were detected in the three fish meals. This study indicates that DNA microarray-based detection is relatively easy and effective for identification of non-compliant marine mammal ingredients in seafood or feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haixia Huan
- Huaiyin Normal University, College of Life Sciences, Huaian, Jiangsu, China
| | | | - Jian He
- Huaian Customs District, China
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13
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Jackman JA, Hakobyan A, Zakaryan H, Elrod CC. Inhibition of African swine fever virus in liquid and feed by medium-chain fatty acids and glycerol monolaurate. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2020; 11:114. [PMID: 33292608 PMCID: PMC7722453 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-020-00517-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ongoing African swine fever virus (ASFv) epidemic has had a major impact on pig production globally and biosecurity efforts to curb ASFv infectivity and transmission are a high priority. It has been recently identified that feed and feed ingredients, along with drinking water, can serve as transmission vehicles and might facilitate transboundary spread of ASFv. Thus, it is important to test the antiviral activity of regulatory compatible, antiviral feed additives that might inhibit ASFv infectivity in feed. One promising group of feed additive candidates includes medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) and monoglyceride derivatives, which are known to disrupt the lipid membrane surrounding certain enveloped viruses and bacteria. RESULTS The antiviral activities of selected MCFA, namely caprylic, capric, and lauric acids, and a related monoglyceride, glycerol monolaurate (GML), to inhibit ASFv in liquid and feed conditions were investigated and suitable compounds and inclusion rates were identified that might be useful for mitigating ASFv in feed environments. Antiviral assays showed that all tested MCFA and GML inhibit ASFv. GML was more potent than MCFA because it worked at a lower concentration and inhibited ASFv due to direct virucidal activity along with one or more other antiviral mechanisms. Dose-dependent feed experiments further showed that sufficiently high GML doses can significantly reduce ASFv infectivity in feed in a linear manner in periods as short as 30 min, as determined by infectious viral titer measurements. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) experiments revealed that GML treatment also hinders antibody recognition of the membrane-associated ASFv p72 structural protein, which likely relates to protein conformational changes arising from viral membrane disruption. CONCLUSION Together, the findings in this study indicate that MCFA and GML inhibit ASFv in liquid conditions and that GML is also able to reduce ASFv infectivity in feed, which may help to curb disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
| | - Astghik Hakobyan
- Group of Antiviral Defense Mechanisms, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Hovakim Zakaryan
- Group of Antiviral Defense Mechanisms, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Charles C Elrod
- Natural Biologics Inc., Newfield, NY, 14867, USA.
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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14
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Zhdanov VP, Jackman JA. Analysis of the initiation of viral infection under flow conditions with applications to transmission in feed. Biosystems 2020; 196:104184. [PMID: 32531420 PMCID: PMC7282798 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2020.104184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
While kinetic models are widely used to describe viral infection at various levels, most of them are focused on temporal aspects and understanding of corresponding spatio-temporal aspects remains limited. In this work, our attention is focused on the initial stage of infection of immobile cells by virus particles ("virions") under flow conditions with diffusion. A practical example of this scenario occurs when humans or animals consume food from virion-containing sources. Mathematically, such situations can be described by using a model constructed in analogy with those employed in chemical engineering for analysis of the function of a plug-flow reactor with dispersion. As in the temporal case, the corresponding spatio-temporal model predicts either the transition to a steady state or exponential growth of the populations of virions and infected cells. The spatial distributions of these species are similar in both of these regimes. In particular, the maximums of the populations are shifted to the upper boundary of the infected region. The results illustrating these conclusions were obtained analytically and by employing numerical calculations without and with the dependence of the kinetic parameters on the coordinate. The model proposed has also been used in order to illustrate the effect of antiviral feed additives on feedborne infection towards curbing disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir P Zhdanov
- Section of Biological Physics, Department of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, S-41296 Göteborg, Sweden; Boreskov Institute of Catalysis, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.
| | - Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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15
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Dee SA, Niederwerder MC, Patterson G, Cochrane R, Jones C, Diel D, Brockhoff E, Nelson E, Spronk G, Sundberg P. The risk of viral transmission in feed: What do we know, what do we do? Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:2365-2371. [PMID: 32359207 PMCID: PMC7754325 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The role of animal feed as a vehicle for the transport and transmission of viral diseases was first identified in 2014 during the porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus epidemic in North America. Since the identification of this novel risk factor, scientists have conducted numerous studies to understand its relevance. Over the past few years, the body of scientific evidence supporting the reality of this risk has grown substantially. In addition, numerous papers describing actions and interventions designed to mitigate this risk have been published. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to review the literature on the risk of feed (what do we know) and the protocols developed to reduce this risk (what do we do) in an effort to develop a comprehensive document to raise awareness, facilitate learning, improve the accuracy of risk assessments and to identify knowledge gaps for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Dee
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
| | - Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Gil Patterson
- Center for Animal Health in Appalachia, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, TN, USA
| | - Roger Cochrane
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
| | - Cassie Jones
- Department of Animal Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Diego Diel
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Eric Nelson
- Department of Veterinary Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
| | - Gordon Spronk
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, USA
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16
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Russell LE, Polo J, Meeker D. The Canadian 2014 porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus outbreak: Important risk factors that were not considered in the epidemiological investigation could change the conclusions. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:1101-1112. [PMID: 31995852 PMCID: PMC7318299 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The introduction and spread of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) in North America resulted in significant death loss in the swine industry. As the industry learned how to manage this disease, many new risks were identified, including the potential for feed and feed ingredients to become contaminated and spread PEDV. In addition, biosecurity practices were reevaluated and strengthened throughout the industry. At the time of the outbreak epidemiologists did not understand, as well as they are understood today, all the risk factors that contribute to the spread of PEDV. As a result, the epidemiological investigations into the 2014 PEDV outbreak in eastern Canada may not have investigated all risk factors as thoroughly as they would be investigated today. In retrospect, many of the Bradford Hill criteria used to determine causation were not fulfilled. This review identifies risk factors that were not included in the 2014 epidemiology. If these risk factors were included in the epidemiology, the conclusions and determination of causation may have been different.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David Meeker
- North American Renderers AssociationAlexandriaVAUSA
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17
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Saensukjaroenphon M, Evans CE, Paulk CB, Gebhardt JT, Woodworth JC, Stark CR, Bergstrom JR, Jones CK. Impact of storage conditions and premix type on phytase stability. Transl Anim Sci 2020; 4:txaa049. [PMID: 32705074 PMCID: PMC7370404 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txaa049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Potential use of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), increased temperatures and exposure time may be implemented to mitigate biological hazards in premixes and feed ingredients. However, there are no data on how these strategies influence phytase stability. For Exp. 1, there were no four- and three-way interactions among premix type (PT), oil type (OT), storage condition (SC), and storage time (ST) for phytase stability (P > 0.111). There were two-way interactions for PT × SC (P < 0.001) and SC × ST (P < 0.001). The OT did not affect phytase stability when premixes-containing phytase were added as either mineral oil (MO) or MCFA (P = 0.382). For Exp. 2, there was no interaction between PT and OT (P = 0.121). There were also no differences for phytase stability between vitamin premix (VP)- and vitamin trace mineral (VTM) premix-containing phytase were heated at 60 °C (P = 0.141) and between premixes-containing phytase were mixed with 1% MO added and 1% MCFA (P = 0.957). Therefore, the phytase was stable when mixed with both VP and VTM premix and stored at 22 °C with 28.4% relative humidity (RH). The phytase stability was dramatically decreased when the phytase was mixed with premixes and stored at 39.5 °C with 78.8% RH. Also, MCFA did not influence phytase degradation during storage up to 90 d and in the heat pulse process. The phytase activity was decreased by 20% after the premixes containing the phytase was heated at 60 °C for approximately 9.5 h. If both MCFA and heat pulse treatment have similar efficiency at neutralizing or reducing the target pathogen, the process of chemical treatment could become a more practical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marut Saensukjaroenphon
- Department of Grain Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - Caitlin E Evans
- Department of Grain Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - Chad B Paulk
- Department of Grain Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - Jordan T Gebhardt
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - Jason C Woodworth
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - Charles R Stark
- Department of Grain Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - Jon R Bergstrom
- DSM Nutritional Products, North America, Animal Nutrition and Health, Parsippany, NJ
| | - Cassandra K Jones
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
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18
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Jones CK, Woodworth J, Dritz SS, Paulk CB. Reviewing the risk of feed as a vehicle for swine pathogen transmission. Vet Med Sci 2019; 6:527-534. [PMID: 31854118 PMCID: PMC7397925 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While porcine biological hazards have had the potential to be transmitted through feed and feed mills for decades, the emerging threat of foreign animal disease has elevated the concern that these may enter or be transmitted throughout the domestic swine herd via a feed vehicle. OBJECTIVE The goal of this review was to describe the current classification for emerging porcine biological pathogen transmission through the feed supply chain so resources can be best directed towards those of highest risk. METHODS By assessing the pathogen severity to pigs and the probability of pathogen transmission through feed, an overall risk can be established using a hazard analysis matrix. RESULTS There is negligible risk for feed-based transmission of a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, Trichinella spiralis, Toxoplasma gondii, Salmonella Choleraesuis, Salmonella spp. except Choleraesuis and I 4,[5],12:i:-, porcine deltacoronavirus, Senecavirus A, mammalian orthoreovirus 3, foot and mouth disease virus, classical swine fever virus or Chinese pseudorabies virus. However, the combined severity and probability of Salmonella enterica serotype I 4,[5],12:i:-, porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus and African swine fever virus warrant a moderate risk characterization for transmission through the US feed supply chain. CONCLUSIONS This risk can be maintained below critical status by minimizing the likelihood that a pathogen can enter the feed supply chain, such as by excluding high-risk ingredients from facilities, extending biosecurity to mills, and considering proactive mitigation strategies. In reality, all these actions may be necessary to prevent the detrimental transmission of porcine biological hazards into the US swine herd through the feed supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra K Jones
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Jason Woodworth
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Steve S Dritz
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Chad B Paulk
- Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
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